tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2510196916744892032024-02-18T19:39:48.412-08:00I. T. Engg PortalThe blog deploys all kind of e-books, question papers and other study material required for an aspiring engineering student of Pune University.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.comBlogger128125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-3481714830582177432013-04-19T15:09:00.000-07:002013-04-19T15:09:28.180-07:00A General Introduction to Big Data<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Today, before we get deeper into Data Mining, Analytics and other industry related concepts, let us understand a few common terms which we have already heard about, but never emphasized on what it actually meant? Sounds interesting, yes I believe it should. A few words like Big Data, Data Mining <b></b>and Analytics are not new to most of us. Almost every one who keeps interest in tech news should have come across the term 'Big Data' , it was a very talked about term recently over Facebook,Twitter & Techcrunch.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lets begin with <b>'Big Data'</b></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">So what exactly do we understand when we say Big Data?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A very simple insight which any one could conclude is that, it deals with data which really BIG in size. Yes, in a way it does.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In a very simple layman definition, I would say that data is managed by a special software called DBMS which runs on a machine(desktop or a server). This software has certain limitations on the size of the data that it can handle. When the size of data goes beyond the limit any traditional database system can handle, we call this kind of data as <b>Big Data</b>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In a more precise way, <b>Big data</b><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data#cite_note-1"></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data#cite_note-2"></a></sup> is a collection of data sets
so large and complex that it becomes really difficult to process using on-hand
database management tools or traditional data processing applications.
The challenges include capture, curation, storage, <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data#cite_note-3"></a></sup>search, sharing, transfer, analysis and visualization.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Now, where did this Big Data come from?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Nowadays, almost all organizations are interested to capture data from every transaction in the business they do and store it, so that they can understand better how well is the business doing. This data could be anything like logs or bills, and is very diverse when compared to another organization. Lets take an example, a grocery shop may have database that captures all the bills from the daily business it does and then on may be on a monthly basis he could understand simple statistics of his business like total revenue, total profit, no of customers etc. If you move on to a larger organizations, people capture more data from the business they do. They are normally more interested in looking how well is their business doing compared to Year on Year Level (YoY) or Quarter on Quarter level (QoQ). And then may be they would go even further, by forecasting how much business they can do in future and where they need to improve.Analysis doesn't end here, facts like what happened to the business, how did this happen and why did it happen can all be figured out by digging deeper into the data. Now that would catch your attention! Never realized that you could learn so many things from your own data, right?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Yes, many organizations gradually understood that they could understand more about their business and do even better, if they really knew what happened, how it happened,what will happen in their business. And hence they started capturing more and more data from every possible dimension. This process continued and over a period of time the size of the data revolved from a few Gigabytes to a few Terabytes. When, the size of data reached a little higher level than expected, the industry figured out the limitations faced by the traditional database systems and therefore concluded the need of more powerful and more sophisticated tools needs to be developed to handle the growing data. And that was where <b>Big Data</b> was first talked about.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Later the size of data started increasing exponentially. All of sudden, many organizations understood the importance of their own data and hence started capturing all possible information they can from the business they do. And this growth now seems to get even faster. May be we would also need to find a better replacement for the word 'Big' in Big Data, something like <b>'Gigantic Data'</b>. Sounds funny?, trust me this is very much possible!</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">So, what did people do handle Big Data?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Since it was obvious that a normal machine could not handle this huge data sets, the industry then proposed the need for a tool which is powerful enough to handle large data sets and also allow all necessary operations on them so that data could be processed , cleaned, filtered, merged and analyzed. These tools also needs to process large data sets parallelly to speed up processing time required. A few big players came ahead and released really sophisticated tools, that could handle really large data. So Oracle launched Exadata, Teradata launched a tool with its own name - 'Teradata', Google came up with their own model - MapReduce and so on. Teradata can handle databases to the size of 10 to the power 12 Gigabytes!.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Lately, the biggest innovation in softwares to handle Big Data was brought by Apache and Google. Apache developed a tool named '<b>Hadoop</b>' which can handle exponential growth of data size and allows faster processing with more sophisticated functionality to handle data. Google also came up with<b> MapReduce</b> - A programming model typically used to process large data sets over a distributed environment. Apache also launched <b>Hive</b>, which is another layer over Hadoop and provides functionality for data warehousing. There are many more tools and softwares which were launched by different players to handle huge data sets and are not discussed here.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> But one thing to notice is that, when you have Big data, your demands are also bigger. You will no longer expect simple results like aggregation and roll ups on a large data set. There is always a need to present this complex data in a simple and more structured format. Hence, we need better and more sophisticated tools to visualize data. A few tools which help in better reporting and and data handling are :- <b>Pentaho</b>, <b>Jasper</b> <b>Reports</b>, <b>DAS - Datameer Analytics Solution, Tableau, Platfora </b>and many more. Apart from these, there are many more tools and packages which help us to visualize data more effectively.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> So that's all I could do, to introduce in a simple way topics like - Big Data and Hadoop. I know, we didn't talk much about Hadoop, but eventually we will. There would be one more article on big data, in which would cover a few other important topics. But for now, this brief introduction would help me to introduce to you basics of Data Analytics. In the upcoming articles we would talk about a brief introduction to Data Analysis and Business Intelligence.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Stay tuned :)</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-83568059780118892252013-04-15T23:18:00.001-07:002013-04-15T23:18:55.137-07:00A new Beginning!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Hi all, </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> We really apologize to all our readers, as our team was inactive for the past 2 months. We are happy to inform you that we are back again and this time with something better! We were initially publishing articles only related to Computer and IT Engineering syllabus, but with the growing number of diverse readers and contributors we are moving one step ahead. We will now also post articles on all new concepts that will help shaping our fellow engineers better for the Industrial Race. </span></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg64_mIx2OOZU16oIUfcM8Epw03KTp5sFOR5Hql75sx0JB7lBJEneC3eIZPA_FPwUh1z9Mp4reKRtsoPp-3lr1RVIAgC4zmUMmT86gdap-R-no6dJAFfwbra3U85e9naGuvarbyR2tClEXY/s1600/bigdatabanner.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="255" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg64_mIx2OOZU16oIUfcM8Epw03KTp5sFOR5Hql75sx0JB7lBJEneC3eIZPA_FPwUh1z9Mp4reKRtsoPp-3lr1RVIAgC4zmUMmT86gdap-R-no6dJAFfwbra3U85e9naGuvarbyR2tClEXY/s400/bigdatabanner.jpg" width="500" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> We have identified Data Mining/Analytics as one of the most important and hottest jobs in the near future for all engineers and we would hence concentrate more on Data Analytics. With a group of Data Scientists, Business Analysts and Software Engineers working with the most prestigious organizations in the world as our contributors, we would now publish articles related to a few upcoming and important technologies which help all engineers blend their technological skills and logical in a better way.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Initially, we have decided to focus on a few new technologies like </span></span><br />
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<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">SQL</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Teradata</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Hadoop/Hive</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Statistics</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">SAS</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">R Programming</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Excel</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Decision Science </span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">HTML5 and so on</span></span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Gradually we would also be adding a few more new sections like Business Intelligence, JSP, PHP, UNIX and a few other new domains based on user demand and new contributors. Simultaneously, we would also be posting about IT and Computer Engineering academic related topics as usual. We look forward to have your continuous support. Feel free to revert with any feedback or opinion for, help us help you better :)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Regards,</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Team - IT Engg Portal</span></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-15025326693854280192012-12-11T09:32:00.001-08:002012-12-14T11:34:13.296-08:00Neural Network and Expert System : [BE - IT]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The subject "<b>Neural Network and Expert System</b>" is introduced as an elective subject in the final semester for BE -IT. The number of students who opt for this subject are very few compared to those opting GIS. The major reason why this subject is not chosen as an elective subject is because it requires Artificial Intelligence as a pre-requisite. Moreover, the subject is a bit confusing and time consuming unlike 'Artificial Intelligence'. Students have managed to score averagely in this subject. And there have been rumors about a local author copy from Nirali Publications for this subject, but no confirm news - as I have not seen the copy myself!</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Lets have a look at the syllabus for the subject :</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Unit I :</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Introduction to Artificial Neural Networks</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Biological Neural Networks, Pattern analysis tasks: Classification and Clustering, Computational models of neurons, Basic structures and properties of Artificial Neural Networks, Structures of Neural Networks Learning principles</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Unit II </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Feedforward Neural Networks</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Perceptron, its learning law , Pattern classification using perceptron, Single layer and Multilayer feed forward Neural Networks (MLFFNNs), Pattern classification and regression using MLFFNNs, ADALINE : The Adaptive Linear Element, its Structure and Learning laws, Error back propagation learning, Fast learning methods: Conjugate gradient method, Auto associative Neural Networks, Bayesian Neural Networks</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Unit III </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Radial Basis Function Networks and Pattern Analysis</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Regularization theory, RBF networks for function approximation , RBF networks for pattern classification</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Kernel methods for pattern analysis: Statistical learning theory, Support vector machines for pattern classification, Relevance vector machines for classification.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Unit IV </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Self organizing maps and feedback networks</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Pattern clustering,, Topological mapping, Kohonen’s self, organizing map Feedback Neural Networks : Pattern storage and retrieval ,Hopfield model, Boltzmann machine, Recurrent Neural Networks</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Unit V </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Expert Systems Architectures:</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Introduction, Rule Based System Architecture, Non-Production System Architecture, Dealing with uncertainty, Knowledge Acquisition and Validation</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Unit VI </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Shells and Case Studies</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Expert System Shells , Knowledge System Building Tools for Expert System, Expert System tools case study – MYCIN – EMYCIN -ELIZA Knowledge Management (Wiki Web case study)</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-76034990192087260492012-11-05T02:18:00.000-08:002012-12-14T11:34:13.318-08:00Cell Splitting - Mobile Computing : [BE - IT/Comp]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">We
have already studies in detail the concept of a cell, cluster, MS and the BS.
So, we will not discuss those all over again. Let us move straight into the
topic.<span style="font-size: small;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The concept of Cell
Splitting is quite self explanatory by its name itself. <b>Cell splitting means to split up cells into smaller cells</b>. <span class="diagramtext">The process of cell splitting is used to expand the capacity
(number of channels) of a mobile communication system. As a network grows, a
quite large number of mobile users in an area come into picture. Consider the
following scenario.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="diagramtext"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">There are 100 people in a specific area. All of them
owns a mobile phone (MS) and are quite comfortable to communicate with each
other. So, a provision for all of them to mutually communicate must be made. As
there are only 100 users, a single base station (BS) is built in the middle of
the area and all these users’ MS are connected to it. All these 100 users now
come under the coverage area of a single base station. This coverage area is
called a cell. This is shown in<i> Fig 2-1.<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span class="diagramtext"><i><span style="line-height: 115%;"> </span></i></span><span class="diagramtext"><span style="line-height: 115%;">Fig 2-1. A single BS for 100 MS users.</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="diagramtext"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> But now, as time passed by, the number of
mobile users in the same area increased from 100 to 700. Now if the same BS has
to connect to these 700 users’ MS, obviously the BS will be overloaded. A
single BS, which served for 100 users is forced to serve for 700 users, which
is impractical. To reduce the load of this BS, we can use cell splitting. That
is, we will divide the above single cell into 7 separate adjacent cells, each
having its own BS. This is shown in </span><i><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Fig
2-2.</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Fig 2-2. Single cell
split up into 7 cells</span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Now,
let us look into the big picture. Until now, we have discussed about cell
splitting in a small area. Now, we use this same concept to deal with large
networks. In a large network, it is not necessary to split up all the cells in
all the clusters. Certain BSes can handle the traffic well if their cells
(coverage areas) are split up. Only those cells must be ideal for cell
splitting. <i>Fig 2-3 </i>shows network
architecture with a few number of cells split up into smaller cells, without
affecting the other cells in the network.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Fig 2-3. Cell Splitting.</span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> The concept of cell
splitting can further be applied to the split cells as well. That is, the split
up cells can further be split into a number of smaller cells to improve the
efficiency of the BS even more. Fig 2-4 shows a hierarchy of cell splitting.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> Here, the master cells which have been split up
into smaller cells are known as macro cells. The split up cells are known as
micro cells. The innermost cells, split up by splitting the micro cells are
known as pico cells.</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-91674821637899987402012-11-05T01:53:00.003-08:002012-12-14T11:34:13.328-08:00Frequency Reuse - Mobile Computing : [BE : IT/Comp]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Most
of you might be familiar with the concept of frequency reuse.<b> </b><span style="font-size: small;">We often come across this term in
Mobile Computing. Quite a straightforward and simple concept, but still it
requires a detailed explanation. This is one of the most common terms used in
the world of Cellular Telephony (Wireless Communication). Most cellular systems
use frequency reuse scheme to improve capacity and coverage. Let us understand
what exactly a cell mean and how they are related to frequencies.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In
a cellular system, each <b>mobile station
(MS)</b> is connected with its <b>base
station (BS)</b> via a radio link. The BS is responsible for sending the calls
to and from the MS, which lie in the coverage area of that BS. The coverage
area of a base station or a sector of a base station is known as a cell. Each
BS consists of a number of frequency channels, which serve as a link between
the MS and the BS. Every time, a call propagates through a channel which is
currently idle and receiving the best signal. As the coverage area of a BS can
be termed as a <b>cell</b>, we can also say
that a cell uses the frequency channels for call forwarding. These cells are
usually of hexagonal shape (this explanation is certainly not in the scope of
our discussion here). The <i>Fig 1-1</i>
shows a typical structure of a cell.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Fig
1-1. A cell.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A PCS (Personal
Communication System) is a combination of many such cells. So, a cell may be
surrounded by a large number of adjacent cells. This is shown in <i>Fig 1-2.<o:p></o:p></i></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Fig 1-2. Cells adjacent to each other
(Cluster).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Now,
let us look at a more general term used for the above structure- <b>a cluster</b>. A number of cells are
grouped to form a cluster. So, <b>a cluster
is a collection of various cells</b>. Now, after understanding the concepts of
cells and cluster, let us move into the actual concept of frequency reuse.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">As
we have seen, cells use frequencies. But imagine two or more cells in a single
cluster using the same frequency. Obviously, there is a wide scope of
interference. So, it is always a better option to avoid two cells in a cluster
using the same frequencies. That is, inside a cluster, all the cells must use
different frequencies. A 3-cell cluster with all the adjacent cells using
different frequencies (F1, F2 and F3) is shown in <i>Fig 1-3.</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 0.5in;">Fig 1-3. Cells in a
cluster using different frequencies.</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">But
this will definitely lead to a new problem. As the network grows, if every cell
in a system uses different frequencies, the frequency spectrum will be heavily
utilized. A large amount of frequencies will be utilized by these cells. A
solution to this problem is the Frequency Reuse.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">All
the cells in a cluster must still have different frequencies, but these
frequencies can be reused by the cells in other clusters. This is the concept
of <b>frequency reuse.</b> That is, if
frequencies A, B, C, D, E, F and G are used by the cells in a 7-cell cluster,
these same frequencies A, B, C, D, E, F and G can be used by the cells in other
clusters. See <i>Fig 1-4.</i><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Fig
1-4. Frequency Reuse.</span></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In the above figure, three different clusters
are shown with three different colors. Each of the 7 cells in each clusters use
different frequencies (A through G). But, the same frequencies (A through G)
are reused by the seven cells of each of the other clusters. Thus, the problems
of interfering frequencies as well as over-utilization of frequencies are
overcome using the concept of frequency reuse.</span></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-26074934049126760742012-10-14T21:05:00.002-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.247-08:00Computer Networks - An Overview : An E-Book for your Viva Season<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> With the semester exams arriving almost <b>15 days prior to normal schedule</b>, we believe all Engineers are facing time shortage for covering your syllabus. Today, we bring to you an <b>all new E-Book Guide</b> which gives you a <b>Complete Overview of Computer Networks.</b> This book covers all basic information required for understanding the <b>crux</b> of the subject. The contents of the book are lucid and thus would help any lame engineer to grasp the concepts easily. Computer Networks being a very interesting subject is also a scoring subject. TE - IT(sem 1) and TE - Comp(sem 2) introduces Computer Networks into the curriculum for Pune University. The subject includes 100 theory paper, 50 marks oral and 25/50 marks internal.</span></div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>A short introduction</b></span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>The Physical Layer</b></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> With the contents well organized, the size of the complete PDF is 131 pages. Easy to learn and easy to grasp, we wish all Engineers best of luck especially for Computer Networks and your Viva season.</span></div>
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</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-91012739354560051512012-10-04T01:00:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.378-08:00Learn Normalization - 1NF, 2NF & 3NF : DBMS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Article Contributed by</span></b></div>
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<b> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/manoj.pisharody99" target="_blank">Manoj Pisharody (BE-IT)</a></b></div>
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<b><a href="mailto:manoj@itportal.in">manoj@itportal.in</a></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">People
who have started learning about databases must have frequently come up with the
word <i>“Normalization”</i> in quite early
stages. The name suggests that it is just about normalizing stuff. But, the
story is not that simple. You need to know much about normalization in order to
handle databases. It is one of the most important things to learn in database
management. (It is assumed that you have the basic knowledge about databases
and know how to manage tables). So, let’s straight away start discussing about
Normalization in thorough depth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;">So what is Normalization?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></i>
<i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>Normalization</b>
</span></i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">is a process of reducing redundancies
of data in a database. Quite often we come across tables having a lot of bulk
data with many columns. All these data might not be necessary all the time
whenever we use those tables. So, a better option is to split up the bulk table
into small parts and use only those tables which suit the actual purpose at a
given instance of time. In this way, redundancy is reduced. To make the long
story short, we can simply say that normalization is a process of dividing a
big table into smaller ones in order to reduce redundancy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To
understand the concept in deep, let us take up a simple example.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Suppose
we are to manage all the databases of a company (say, My Company). The company
must keep track of all the employees, customers, product details and the salary
details of all the employees. A simple and straight forward way to do this is
to put all this information into a single table and manage all those
simultaneously. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">See below</span><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: StoneInformal;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Looking
at the above table, you may feel that it is perfectly fine. After all, what is
the problem with it? We have a big table; we have all the information required
by the company together in a single space, thus saving a lot of memory. Well
and good!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But,
now think! If suppose, we need to frequently retrieve/update data about just
the employees. Here, does the customer’s information or the product details
really matter. Definitely no. So, why use the entire table for using just a
part of it? We need a solution to this. And the solution is normalization. What
we create using normalization is often called as normal forms. Let study about
the popular and most widely used normal forms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;">The First Normal Form<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To solve the above problem, the first and foremost thing to
be done is to divide the entire raw database into smaller tables based on the
actual groupings. When each table has been designed, a primary key is assigned
to most or all tables. Note that the primary key must be a unique value, so try
to select a data element for the primary key that naturally uniquely identifies
a specific piece of data.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So, let us take up the same previous example and prepare our
First normal form. See the figure below:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As we can see, the big raw database is divided into three
smaller tables- one for employee, customers and products details, each.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Thus, to access any one of these tables, we need not handle
the other two tables.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: StoneInformal; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;">The Second Normal Form<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The objectives of the second normal form is to take data
that is only partly dependent on the primary key and enter that data into
another table. Let us take up the same example of <i>Fig 1-2.</i> Consider the table- <i>Employee.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
Here, the entire table has information about the personal details as well as
the salary information. But, it is well understood that, to pay salary to an
employee, the company does not actually need the employee’s personal details.
Just his <i>emp_id</i> is sufficient. So,
why not use just that? This is the second normal form. Same goes with Customers
table. We can separate customer’s information from the order details. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">See the
figure below:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: StoneInformal; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: StoneInformal; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;">The Third Normal Form<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The third normal form’s objective is to remove data in a
table that is not dependent on the primary key. See the same example of <i>Fig 1-3</i>. For the table named<i> Emp_Pay</i>, the <i>position</i> and <i>position_desc</i>
fields are not dependent on primary key (<i>emp_id</i>).
So, the better option is to move both these fields to another table. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">See below:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: StoneInformal; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;">Advantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As we have already seen in the sections before,
normalization has many advantages. Let us list out a few ones:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"> Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Greater overall database organization</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">Reduction of redundant data</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">Data consistency within the database</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">A much more flexible database design</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;"> Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">A better handle on database security</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.25in;">Enforces concept of referential integrity</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: StoneInformal; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;">Disadvantages<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although there are many advantages of normalization, there
are some disadvantages too. After all, the popular saying “All the coins have
two sides” still holds true. So, let’s go through the disadvantages too.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">There is one substantial drawback of a normalized database:
reduced database performance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The factors compromised include CPU usage, memory usage, and
input/output (I/O). To In other words, a normalized database requires much more
CPU, memory, and I/O to process transactions and database queries than does a
denormalized database.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="color: #403152; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: StoneInformal; mso-themecolor: accent4; mso-themeshade: 128;">Denormalizing a Database<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Denormalization </span></i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">is the
process of taking a normalized database and modifying table structures to allow
controlled redundancy for increased database performance. A denormalized
database is not the same as a database that has not been normalized. The
purpose of denormalization is to get rid of the problems discussed in the
previous sections. Denormalization might
involve recombining separate tables or creating duplicate data within tables to
reduce the number of tables that need to be joined to retrieve the requested data,
which results in less I/O and CPU time. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This is normally advantageous in larger
data warehousing applications in which aggregate calculations are being made
across millions of rows of data within tables. There are costs to
denormalization, however. Data redundancy is increased in a denormalized
database, which can improve performance but requires more extraneous efforts to
keep track of related data.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So, now you might be confused whether to normalize your
database or not. The solution is to normalize the database upto a certain
extent. So that, redundancy is controlled to a great extent, without
compromising on other factors like CPU usage, memory usage, and input/output
(I/O).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"> </span><b style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/PDFs/Normalization-DBMS.pdf">Download this Article as PDF</a></span></b></div>
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<br />
<b style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/manoj.pisharody99" style="text-align: center;" target="_blank">Manoj Pisharody (BE-IT)</a></b><br />
<b style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; text-align: center;">manoj@itportal.in</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-33690704702958337802012-09-22T09:59:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.255-08:00Learn about POP3 and IMAP Protocols : Computer Networks<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21px;"><br /><span style="color: red;">Article contributed by :</span></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><br /></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://facebook.com/manoj.pisharody99" target="_blank">ManojPisharody (BE – IT)</a></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 18px;">manoj.pisharody99@gmail.com</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 18px;">----------------------------------------------------------</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 18px;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/PDFs/POP3%20&%20IMAP-iportal.in.pdf" target="_blank">Click Here</a></span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/PDFs/POP3%20&%20IMAP-iportal.in.pdf" target="_blank">To DOWNLOAD this Article in PDF</a></span></b></div>
<br />
<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
pre-requisite to understand these two protocols is to know what an E-mail is
and how it works. So, we would first take a short tour of E-mail.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Electronic
Mail or e-mail</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, as it
is often called, is one of the best forms of communication. Several innovations
and researches to the field of Computer Networks have brought about many
modifications to the traditional e-mail and today E-mail has become the fastest
and most efficient way to communicate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Working of E-mail<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">An
<b><i>e-mail</i></b>
system supports five basic functions:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Composition</span></b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (generation of email),</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>Transfer</b> (sending of email from sender
to receiver), </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>Reporting</b> (delivery
status of the mail at the receiver’s end), </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>Displaying</b>
(the mail in the receiver’s mailbox) and</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><b>Disposition</b>
(what does the receiver does with the mail). <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But
for now, let us make the long story short, and just discuss about the message
transfer phase.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">To
transfer an email from the source machine (say, A) to destination machine (say,
B); the source machine establishes a TCP connection to port 25 of the
destination machine. The actual transfer is done by a protocol named <b>SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)</b>. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This protocol accepts incoming connections and copies them in to the
destination machine with the help of a <b><i>message transfer agent</i></b>. If the
message cannot be delivered, an error report is sent to the source machine. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdkMJ5CAIc8wkd7zWEhXJvfQsDxHOWmqhkDkXCoi8Ewt23lldmNnvqNjhvun47M3kpQ7EjRlIllzK6cpp3_5Fv4KsxlrEQJYU9kX7f9CWlxegYXHam3utUPaRwh8Xm0ge5VDyj5qi09oRF/s1600/1.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="259" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdkMJ5CAIc8wkd7zWEhXJvfQsDxHOWmqhkDkXCoi8Ewt23lldmNnvqNjhvun47M3kpQ7EjRlIllzK6cpp3_5Fv4KsxlrEQJYU9kX7f9CWlxegYXHam3utUPaRwh8Xm0ge5VDyj5qi09oRF/s640/1.PNG" width="540" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">Final delivery protocols (POP3 & IMAP)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now
that we have seen the basic idea of how a mail is transferred, now it is the optimal
time to learn about the delivery protocols.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As
we have seen, sending an email needs the source machine to establish a TCP
connection with the destination machine. But suppose A wants to send an email
to B, but B is offline. In this case, A cannot establish a TCP connection with
B and thus, The SMTP protocol fails.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">One solution to this
problem is to have a message transfer agent residing on an ISP (Internet
Service Provider) between the source and destination machines. This agent can
remain online 24x7, and thus the source machine can establish a TCP connection
with this agent anytime.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now,
the problem establishing TCP connection is solved. But, does it solve all the
problems in delivering the mail? Certainly not. The problem now arising is how
to connect the destination machine to the ISP (on which the message transfer
agent resides). Note that this ISP is online throughout, but the destination
machine is not. So, there must be a protocol to connect the mail transfer
agent’s ISP to the destination machine. This is what POP (Post Office Protocol)
is all about. This protocol deals with delivering the mail to the destination.
But how? Let’s see.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">First,
the source establishes a TCP connection with the mail transfer agent’s ISP. The
agent copies the mail to the ISP’s mailbox. Now, the role of the source machine
is over. Delivering the mail to destination is up to the message transfer agent’s
ISP. Whenever the destination machine
comes online, it establishes a TCP connection with the mail transfer agent at
port 110. Then the message transfer agent gives the control to the POP3 server
and this server completely copies the message to the mailbox of the destination
machine. Once this is done, the message is deleted from the message transfer
agent’s ISP.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4tPpOkH62uOooxAxrBd9lPQcFVyFh16faJk09tzrl2dAc7bLNESXmE3cXM7eW8iHnO_hYuLXecXVlCoy13GCgACDZzkwU4A05BtnTx_IlERt5iAQbCMyrKBYiV6H8BCUndwzXnn0DozIW/s1600/3.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="336" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4tPpOkH62uOooxAxrBd9lPQcFVyFh16faJk09tzrl2dAc7bLNESXmE3cXM7eW8iHnO_hYuLXecXVlCoy13GCgACDZzkwU4A05BtnTx_IlERt5iAQbCMyrKBYiV6H8BCUndwzXnn0DozIW/s640/3.PNG" width="540" /></a></div>
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<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0f243e; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text2; mso-themeshade: 128;">IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
above protocol works well if there is a single user in the receiver’s ISP. But
that must not be the case all the time. Quite often, in big companies or
organizations, a single ISP is shared by many users. The mail sent by a source
might be important for all the users sharing the ISP. So, in this case,
definitely POP3 won’t work. To solve this problem, another protocol named IMAP
(Internet Message Access Protocol) is used. Here, whenever a user in the
destination ISP comes online, the user establishes a TCP connection to port 110
of the message transfer agent’s ISP. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> The agent approaches the IMAP server which now
displays the whole message to the user. The user can either delete after
reading, delete before reading, fully or partially download file(s) (if the
message contains any files), and so on. Whatever the user does with the message
is not the concern of the message transfer agent’s ISP. The agent does not
delete the message from its ISP mailbox. So that, if a new user sharing the
same destination ISP logs in, the message is displayed to that user too, after
the TCP connection is established.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P.T.O.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpX_z7N786OeNA1Gyem6m9fzbvVMfqS0n_Q0bQZjm73kAZSP8T8Ff3h4ljVedngudEjQR03EGDt1nu13x5Vo76C8my465YvcacSeSuZQ4BWZaDSnfY3QSmZm5j5S8k0ZJWV8uHRUjjOgOI/s1600/4.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpX_z7N786OeNA1Gyem6m9fzbvVMfqS0n_Q0bQZjm73kAZSP8T8Ff3h4ljVedngudEjQR03EGDt1nu13x5Vo76C8my465YvcacSeSuZQ4BWZaDSnfY3QSmZm5j5S8k0ZJWV8uHRUjjOgOI/s640/4.PNG" width="540" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #244061; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #244061; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Key Differences<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
key difference between both the protocols is the role of the message transfer
agent and the corresponding protocol server. In POP3, the agent deletes the
message (file) from its mailbox after the user PC downloads the file. In the
contrary, in IMAP, the agent does not delete the message after displaying it to
the user.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Another
difference is that, in POP3, the only option left with the destination PC is to
completely download the file to its PC. But, IMAP provides additional features-
the destination user PC can partially/fully download the file, delete
before/after reading the message, without loss of data as the message will
always remain in the agent’s ISP mailbox. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-</span></b><br />
<br />
<div>
<b><br /></b>
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/PDFs/POP3%20&%20IMAP-iportal.in.pdf" target="_blank">Click Here</a></span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/PDFs/POP3%20&%20IMAP-iportal.in.pdf" target="_blank">To DOWNLOAD this Article in PDF</a></span></b></div>
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contributed by :</span></b><br />
<b style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></b>
<b style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://facebook.com/manoj.pisharody99" target="_blank">ManojPisharody (BE – IT)</a></span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; line-height: 115%;">manoj.pisharody99@gmail.com</span></b></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-52987947686574688522012-09-16T12:12:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.303-08:00Learn About Cookies<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">A</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 21px;">rticle Contributed By </span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></b></div>
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<b style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://facebook.com/manoj.pisharody99" target="_blank">Mr. Manoj Pisharody</a></span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">BE – IT</span></b></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/PDFs/Learn_about_Cookies-ManojPisharody.pdf" target="_blank"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Click Here</span></b></a><br />
<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/PDFs/Learn_about_Cookies-ManojPisharody.pdf" target="_blank"><b><span style="font-size: large;">To download this article in PDF </span></b></a></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0px;">
<br class="Apple-interchange-newline" /></div>
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<span style="text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 0.5in;">Almost all of us are familiar with the term “<b>COOKIES</b>”. We
use this term quite often when we access the World Wide Web. Sadly, most of us
are not aware of the exact meaning and the functioning of cookies. This guide
will help you understand what cookies are all about.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But before
starting with our discussion on cookies, it is of utmost importance to know how
exactly the World Wide Web works. So, we will start with understanding what
happens actually when we type a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) on a browser’s
window. Let’s take up an example. Suppose you type </span><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.itu.org/home/index.html.(Here"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">http://www.itu.org/home/index.html. (Here</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">, http
refers to the protocol name;</span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.itu.org/"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">www.itu.org</span></a></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
refers to the machine where the required file named home/index.html is
located).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Firstly,
the browser determines the URL. The browser then asks DNS (Domain Name System,
which does the mapping of the URL name and its corresponding IP address) for
the IP address of </span><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.itu.org/"><i><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">www.itu.org</span></i></a></span><i><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></i><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Suppose DNS replies with an IP address of
156.106.192.32. Now, the browser makes a TCP connection to port 80 on
156.106.192.32. It then sends a request for the file <i>/home/index.html.</i> The </span><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.itu.org/"><i><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">www.itu.org</span></i></a></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
server sends the file <i>/home/index.html</i>.
Then the TCP connection is released. The browser now displays all the text in <i>/home/index.html</i> and fetches and
displays all images in this file.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="color: #244061; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="color: #244061; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">So what are Cookies?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: #244061; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;"> </span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Now,
as we have seen, all that happens with the Web is a request and response sharing
between the browser and the server. After sending the file, the server forgets
everything about the client (the machine using the browser). No login sessions
are involved. In other words, the server does not keep any information about
the client. This phenomenon is known as statelessness. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">But,
it is not the case with all the websites. Some websites are better functioned
if the server is informed about the client. An example can be e-commerce. When
the users keep on tossing items on to their cart time by time, the server must
keep track of the contents of each user’s cart. Another example is a Web portal
like Yahoo which allows users signing up. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">One
might think that this can be done quite easily by the server tracking down the
IP addresses of the clients. But, life’s not that easy at times. Many users now
work on shared computers at companies. Here the IP address refers to the
machine, not the user. Also, in today’s world, almost all the companies work as
a single IP address from the point of view of the outside world. So, there is
no way a server can identify which user is using which machine. The solution to
the problem is Cookies.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To put
in simpler words, we can say, Cookies are the files which stores the
information about a client/ clients. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<br /></div>
<br />
<div align="center">
<script type="text/javascript"><!--
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</script>
<b> </b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><br /></b>
<b>Acquiring Cookies
</b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Now
let us focus on the generation of cookies. When a client requests a Web page,
the server, along with the Web page can send some additional information too.
This information may <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">include
a cookie. A cookie is a small file, of about 4kb. The cookies thus received by
the browser are stored in a cookie directory on a client’s hard disk (provided
that the client has not disabled them). Cookies are just files, not executable
programs. See Fig 1-1 below.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f">
<v:stroke joinstyle="miter">
<v:formulas>
<v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0">
<v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1">
<v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1">
<v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth">
<v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0">
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight">
<v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0">
</v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas>
<v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f">
<o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit">
</o:lock></v:path></v:stroke></v:shapetype><v:shape alt="Description: C:\Users\Acer\Desktop\cookie\c1.PNG" id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 411.75pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 540pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="c1" src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPlsMJzq0B1AudtbBkuB7TcDzhm7vEQ5Qy_KbJQgZYsrrSycnnpWh7xE5jc8F8KMT1X6XbXh39BNdUen3w05QAL_xgLh4qpmhWQOgj4hZOVc_FvmMSgnotNl2wByca-zYOFrZIcuV-Z3MH/s1600/c1.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="243" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPlsMJzq0B1AudtbBkuB7TcDzhm7vEQ5Qy_KbJQgZYsrrSycnnpWh7xE5jc8F8KMT1X6XbXh39BNdUen3w05QAL_xgLh4qpmhWQOgj4hZOVc_FvmMSgnotNl2wByca-zYOFrZIcuV-Z3MH/s320/c1.PNG" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="color: #244061; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">Physical Representation<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">A
cookie may contain a maximum of 5 fields. See the figure below for an example:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 14.35pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 102.95pt;" valign="top" width="137"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Domain<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 64.45pt;" valign="top" width="86"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Path<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 157.5pt;" valign="top" width="210"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Content<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 137.75pt;" valign="top" width="184"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Expires on/at<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 14.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 82.75pt;" valign="top" width="110"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Secure?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
understand the figure clearly, let us take up some real time examples (the
theoretical/numerical data are assumed just for the sake of better
understanding, these may be incorrect from the actual point of view).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 530px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.45in;" valign="top" width="139"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Domain<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Path<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 156.6pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Content<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Expires on/at<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Secure?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.45in;" valign="top" width="139"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">yahoo.com<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">/<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 156.6pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cust_ID=431433<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">23-12-14 03:00<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Yes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.45in;" valign="top" width="139"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">flipcart.com<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">/<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 156.6pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cart=1-0932;1-23<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">12-01-19 17:30<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">No<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.45in;" valign="top" width="139"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">irctc.com<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 63.0pt;" valign="top" width="84"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">/<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 156.6pt;" valign="top" width="209"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">User ID=234521<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">20-05-22 12:00<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 81.0pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt;">Yes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <b>Fig 1-2. Some examples of cookies.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The <b><i>Domain
</i></b>field refers to the domain (server) from where the cookie came from.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The <b><i>Path</i></b>
field denotes a path in the server’s directory structure that identifies which
parts of the server’s file tree may use the cookie. It is often ‘/’ which
denotes the entire tree.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The<b> <i>Content</i>
</b>field is of the form <i>name=value. </i>Both
the <i>name </i>and the <i>value</i> can be anything which the server decides.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The <b><i>Expires
on/at</i></b> field determines the expiry date and time of the cookie. This
field may or may not be present. If it is absent, the browser simply discards
the cookie upon exit. Such a cookie is often called as a non-persistent cookie.
If the field is present, the cookie is said to be persistent and is kept until
it expires. The time zone used here is Greenwich Mean Time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">To
remove a cookie from the client’s hard disk, the server just sends the cookie
all over again with expiration field with a past time/date.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The <b><i>Secure</i>
</b>field is set to indicate that the browser may only return the cookie to a
secure server. It has just two values, <i>yes</i>
and <i>no</i>. If yes, the browser sends the
cookie only to a domain name starting with </span><span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><i>https://
</i></span><span class="MsoHyperlink">(indicating</span></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
secure HTTP).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b><span style="color: #244061; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 128;">So how are cookies used?</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Now that we are done with how cookies
are generated by the server and sent back to the browser, it is now time to
discuss how these cookies are used by the browser.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As stated earlier, the browser stores
the cookie (file) in a cookie directory on the client’s machine. Now, using
cookies won’t alter the mechanism of WWW (as discussed in 1.1) in any manner.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">But a minor change is very much
acceptable. This is discussed here. In a normal stateless scenario, the browser
requests for a file to the server and server responds with that file. But,
using cookies will play a role in the former part. Before a browser sends a
request for a page to some Website, it checks its cookie directory to see if
any cookie has been previously sent by the same Website to the particular
client. In more technical terms, we can say, the browser, before requesting a
file from a website, checks its cookie directory to see if there is any cookie
already present with the <i>Domain </i>field
occupied by the same domain as the current server to which request is being
made.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> If
so, along with the request for the file, the browser also sends the cookies
placed by the domain to the server. When these cookies reach the server, the
server can do whatever it wishes to with the cookie. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
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<div style="text-align: center;">
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-46227211886101175692012-09-08T23:40:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:34:13.308-08:00Principles of Compiler Design : [ BE : Comp ] <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Principles of Compiler Design</b> is a compulsory subject for <b>Computer Engineering</b> in the <b>7th semester</b>. the subject is a continuation or an advancement for<b> SPOS & TOC</b> i.e. System Programming and Operating Systems & Theory of Computation. A very interesting subject to learn, but requires precise practice as the subject has many numericals or sums(for design). The subject requires SPOS and TOC as pre-requisite and makes the subject little difficult for those who had problems studying Theory of Computation. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Overall, the subject is really interesting to learn and is scoring as well. Local author books for the subject are also good enough for reference. The subject also includes a 50mark practical , which is also a difficult one. The practical includes 'C' codes for compiler construction which is a lengthy process.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Here, we are providing few books which are required for referencing the subject. The text book 'Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools' covers a substantial part of the subject in a lucid way. Apart from the textbook, we are also providing other E-Books which are recommended for the subject.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;">E-Books for Download :</span></b><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Compilers : Principles, Techniques & Tools</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Aho, Ullman, Sethi</span></b></div>
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<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/Ebooks/TE/system%20sw/Compilers.Principles.Techinques.And.Tools-Aho,Sethi,Ullman.pdf" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLkpfZCqB_wnVVtkaA55YbCSP4V4ahpTYpkAVc1PIjxn2bMtr1oFxKYEFIXZ6VPo3l79H6-ortvbN-S5Ky_55OgtmeqEO-adg3T5Rp9nH075aLPqo-26tWXCZOoSa7Dp2__i0jjA0TlY4x/s400/cmp1.jpg" width="263" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/Ebooks/TE/system%20sw/Compilers.Principles.Techinques.And.Tools-Aho,Sethi,Ullman.pdf" target="_blank">Download Now</a></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">File Type : PDF</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">File Size : 36.4MB</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Niklaus Wirth</span></b></div>
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<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/Ebooks/TE/system%20sw/Compiler%20Construction.pdf" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvsEuasOecTOgNqZGhAFffObpZu6014iBG3aHuUCNwRkBZPvMH1Xy-wX1DwOe7zx4gFfw3k0iGMbqukh5PIL80_To4Wr4naIh4-OUrENii8rosRWAkvrIk1zSapQbmTlEgomvDD2T9lnj_/s320/cmp2.jpg" width="246" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">File Type : PDF</span></b></div>
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<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/Ebooks/TE/system%20sw/Lex%20and%20Yacc.2ed.pdf" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCj5tXiydU9VYPdbCYv4UrmAW1xGE0R16VqKO15hSiBIjaqMlrv7gFluTNIzfL0MwqFKPEPOTl7syB29fvPwJk-mSfVZUztL-eq8Grz1zqzOYvPhWKlnMIGgCUpfk2-MzNZ8f_ARpdxYUz/s400/cmp3.gif" width="266" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">File Type : PDF</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">File Size : 15.5 MB</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Linkers & Loaders</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">John R. Levine</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">File Type : PDF</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">File Size : 3.5MB</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;"> Modern Compiler Design</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Grune, Bal, Langendoen</span></b></div>
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<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/Ebooks/TE/system%20sw/%5bD._Grune,_H._Bal,_C._Jacobs,_K._Langendoen%5d_Moder(BookFi.org).djvu" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitISK_-i8V0gH7efi7FnEY4FhcqmVU5oUjSNphY7wALCzg5hvllA4l5-2QCeHYeIOIC0qFGkmnZ8PGxSpqaZY9LYtA962oZ5ItDeOdqctDLphFNWDFNbAEpP3CiU9ubYC8AMtJtboVML52/s400/cmp5.jpg" width="265" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Compiler Construction :</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Principles and Practice </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Kenneth Louden</span></b></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-41978075309443443032012-08-29T07:55:00.000-07:002012-08-29T07:58:04.504-07:00CodeArea.in : Website for all codes you will need!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Today we would like to bring to your notice, an all new website<a href="http://codearea.in/" target="_blank"> '<b>CODEAREA.IN</b><span id="goog_938847787"></span><span id="goog_938847788"></span>'</a> developed by two of our guest bloggers and Software Engineers <b><a href="https://www.facebook.com/shilpa.khubchandani.9" target="_blank">Shilpa Khubchandani</a></b> and <a href="https://www.facebook.com/preeti.pandit.509" target="_blank"><b>Preeti Pandit</b></a>. Both of them have been Guest Bloggers with <b><a href="http://www.itportal.in/" target="_blank">IT Engg Portal</a></b> and have been blogging consistently for a while. The website deploys all sorts of codes a student would require for any practicals and any other syllabus based subjects. The site provides codes on all subjects of Computer and IT Engineering along with BCA course of Pune University. Along with this, the portal will soon add codes for other allied branches like BCS, MCS and MCA of Pune and Mumbai University.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Both our Guest Bloggers, Shilpa and Preeti have really done a commendable job with Codearea. The development of this website took almost <b>75+ days</b>. Strenuous efforts has been invested by both the bloggers for launching this portal. After slogging for over two months on this project, they have finally given a green signal for the portal to be live on the internet. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Finally <b><a href="http://www.itportal.in/" target="_blank">Team - IT Engg Portal </a></b>wishes Codearea team members best of luck for a bright future and recommends each and every student of Computer Science and allied branch's students to visit Codearea for better codes and algorithms.</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-71175312502649461602012-08-26T06:50:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:34:13.315-08:00Object Oriented Modelling and Design [OOMD/UML] BE - [ COMP & IT ]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"><b> Object Oriented Modelling and Design </b>is a subject introduced in the <b>7th semester i.e (BE- sem 2) </b>of Engineering for <b>Computer and IT Engineering</b> curriculum of Pune University. The subject is a<b> compulsory subject</b> for both the branches (Computer and IT). This subject is really an important subject for a software engineer to model visual designs of a particular project.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"> To understand why do we need to study this subject let us take an example: When you build any software using any particular software modelling techniques (say Waterfall Model) then you actually move or progress according to the protocol in a assigned way. The project starts with exploring the</span><b style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">requirements</b><span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">of the project and then elaborating these requirements. After this step before the coding step starts , the team builds a visual model which helps the team to understand the different views of the system. It also helps to build a system in an easier and non haphazard manner. This is because the</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"> </span><b style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">models</b><span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">once designed can be used as</span><b style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"> reference for the future</b><span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px;">during the development process. The team can then refer the different visual models for any information about the implementation of the project</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 20px;"> To design these <b>visual models</b> we need to have a<b> commonly agreed and accepted methodology</b> or a simple protocol. Here comes<b> UML</b> into the picture. UML i.e. Unified Modelling Language is a Language which helps one to <b>design visual models of a system</b> in different views. UML is not a programming language and hence contains no coding stuff. It contains only diagrams which helps a designer develop a visual model of the system . There are many different types of diagrams available under the UML, which helps a user design different view models of a system. Some of them are : Class Diagrams , Activity Diagrams, Sequence Diagrams etc.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 20px;"> The syllabus for Computer and IT Engineering is almost the same. The books recommended for Computer Engineering are same as that of IT Engineering.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 20px;"><b>Local Authors :</b> Among the local author publications, none of the books are good to learn the subject. All the publications lack good examples for each model explained. Among all the publications available (namely Nirali, Technical and Techmax) <b>Techmax</b> would be better. Techmax is only a better optin among the given choices and cannot be recommended as a good book.</span></div>
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<b>Foreign Authors : </b> Grady Booch, James Rumbaugh, Ivar Jacobson "<b>Unified Modeling Language User Guide</b>" and S<b>AMS Teach yourself UML in 24 Hours </b>would help you to understand the concepts in a simple way. But both of these books lack good examples. And UML is a language that can only be learned by visualizing practical examples. To have a better view of the subject, please refer to many UML diagrams that are available online. </div>
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The Best site for UML examples would be : <a href="http://www.uml-diagrams.org/" style="text-align: left;">http://www.uml-diagrams.org/</a></div>
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The site covers detailed UML diagrams for many real life problems.</div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Object Oriented Analysis & Design </span></b></div>
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<b>Understanding System Development with UML2.0</b></div>
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<b>Mike O' Docherty</b></div>
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<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/Ebooks/oomd/Object-Oriented-Analysis-and-Design-Understanding-System-Development-with-UML-2-0.9780470092408.19713.pdf" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHGdGUCVMGI712S5KZ9_-Kul9_9T58KuQ8vp-u8wKg8ufTq950SuBWHoNQXi3LzO3X9B6GQe-3fO5EF63ZwujN_pGZhQleBfDe1f6Ibbtpvn9WBZzwCT4owZa432KBLb6oCcZS43AnHvVq/s320/uml2.jpg" width="257" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">The Unfied Modelling Language </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Reference Manual</span></b></div>
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<b>Rumbaugh,Jacobsom, Booch</b></div>
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<b style="font-size: x-large;">UML 2.0 In a Nutshell</b></div>
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<b>A Desktop Quick Reference</b></div>
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<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/Ebooks/oomd/%5bDan_Pilone,_Neil_Pitman%5d_UML_2.0_in_a_Nutshell.pdf" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJ12Duo2I-BFiz9ecOwFRgxqWtENnfnkzCk2n9eQLvnWHlTO4gNJntcBBeY4SrznAafUgm1XA-yWpX3iGkBtmmFQewrEVmLiB94l2uB56cP_ewWteKE6ouyRUCmmVGVJxyGtLb9cpAK6DH/s400/uml4.jpg" width="266" /></a></div>
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<b>Elements of Reusable Object Oriented Software</b></div>
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<b>Gamma,Helm,Johnson,Vlissides</b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">UML 2 And the Unified Process</span></b></div>
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<b>Jim Arlow</b></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-41982953625000237252012-08-23T05:09:00.001-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.279-08:00Design and Analysis Of Algorithms a.k.a. ( DAA ) - BE [Comp : Sem 7] TE [IT : Sem 6]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b> Design and Analysis of Algorithm</b>s aka <b>DAA</b> is a very important subject introduced into the engineering curriculum in the <b>7th Semester for Computer Engineering</b> and <b>6th Semester for Information Technology</b>. The subject was initially not included for the IT curriculum, but since the 2008 pattern , the subject was included in TE (Sem 6)</span><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> The syllabus for IT is a subset of the syllabus of Computer Engineering, in simple words <b>Computer Engineering has almost 30-40% extra syllabus for DAA when compared with the IT syllabus. </b>Even though the subject is very important, it is extremely vast and very confusing. Too many algorithms and every algorithm with many versions in different units makes this subject very confusing and a bit difficult to study. But, on a positive node the subject is scoring for most students. Scoring 60+ in this subject does not require strenuous efforts.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> DAA is basically a subject which introduces to you <b>different strategies for developing algorithms</b>. You might have already been introduced to a few strategies in SE (2nd Year) when you studied Data Structures and Algorithms. If remember Quick Sort Algorithm or Prim's Algorithm when you studied Data Structures using C/C++, the explanation of these algorithms also mentioned the type of algorithm they were. Quick Sort uses the <b>Divide and Conquer technique</b> similarly Prim's uses<b> Greedy Method</b>. Similarly different algorithms include different strategies. In DAA you will be introduced many more strategies along with detailed explanation and examples. You will be introduced to around 5 - 6 techniques in the syllabus like Branch& <b>Bound, Greedy, Divide & Conquer, NP - Hard, Dynamic, Backtracking</b> and a few more.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> The subject becomes more complicated when you have to learn the same algorithm with different strategies. Recollecting these algorithms in the papers becomes frustrating. The subject requires genuine amount of efforts to clear, but on a positive node ,the subject is scoring.</span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b>Verdict:</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Subject</b> : DAA - Design and Analysis of Algorithms</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Analysis </b> : Interesting to learn, a bit confusing ,time-consuming but scoring.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Difficulty Level</b> : Moderate (Instead Confusing)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Scoring Type </b> : Scoring (Easy to score 60+)</span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b>Books Recommended </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Local Authors :</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Among the local authors the best book to study DAA would be <b>Technical</b>. The book covers the subject in a lucid manner with sufficient number of problems and relatively simple Pseudocode. Techmax for DAA is below average. Nirali is better than Techmax and has simpler algorithms compared to Technical but lacks examples and numericals. Many students prefer only studying Algorighm's Pseudocode from Nirali and the rest from Technical.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Foreign Authors :</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Fundamentals of Computer Algorithms - Horowitz and Sahani</b> and</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Introduction to Algorithm - Thomas Cormen and Leiserson </b>are better compared to the other books cited by Pune University.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">We are providing you with all the Books recommended by the university for this Subject. Please download them and pass on !</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Samir Khuller</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">University of Maryland</span></b></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-89852353211516804612012-08-22T22:11:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.374-08:00Address Resolution Protocol : Computer Networks <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://draft.blogger.com/goog_303420865">Click Here to Visualize ARP</a></span></b></div>
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<b><a href="http://courses.iddl.vt.edu/CS1604/media/arp.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Flash Animation</span></a></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Before we start learning about<b> ARP </b>i.e <b>Address Resolution Protocol</b>, we need to understand one very basic element of networking - <b>IP Address.</b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> In a simple way, we can say that IP address is a logical address assigned to a machine over a network. It allows a machine to be defined as an end point. Whenever communication takes place between two entities, both the parties should have a unique identifier or an address or some other way to represent themselves uniquely. In networking this job is done by using IP addresses.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> When communication takes place data is sent in the form of packets from the source to the destination. Although every machine on the Internet has one (or more) IP addresses, these
cannot actually be used for sending packets because the <b>data link layer hardware
does not understand Internet addresses</b>. i.e your network interface card (eg. Ethernet card) in the physical layer doesn't know anything about your IP address. Instead, it has a unique <i>Ethernet address</i> (also called its hardware address or more often its <i>Media Access Control</i> <b>(MAC) address</b>). This is what is used in the physical and data link layers to uniquely identify a network interface so that the frames can be transferred properly. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>So how does a data link network ever manage to send IP packets around?</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A special protocol bridges the gap between the data link layer and the network layer. The <b>Address Resolution Protocol</b> (ARP) is used in a local (physical) network to convert IP addresses to MAC addresses. ARP is not technically a part of the IP protocol, but it is a nearly universal means for <b>mapping IP addresses to hardware addresses</b>, so it is often discussed in the context of IP-based networks.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Let us understand how do IP addresses get mapped onto data link layer addresses, such as Ethernet? </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To explain how this works, let us use the example given below in which a small university with several class
C networks is illustrated. Here we have two Ethernets, one in
the Computer Science Dept., with IP address 192.31.65.0 and one in Electrical
Engineering, with IP address 192.31.63.0. These are connected by a campus
backbone ring (e.g., FDDI) with IP address 192.31.60.0. Each machine on an
Ethernet has a unique Ethernet address, labeled <span class="docEmphasis">E1</span> through <span class="docEmphasis">E6</span>, and each
machine on the FDDI ring has an FDDI address, labeled <span class="docEmphasis">F1</span> through <span class="docEmphasis">F3</span>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Suppose a user on host 1 sends a packet to a user on host
2. Let us assume the sender knows the name of the intended receiver, possibly
something like <span class="docEmphasis">mary@eagle.cs.uni.edu</span>. The first
step is to find the IP address for host 2, known as <span class="docEmphasis">eagle.cs.uni.edu</span>. This lookup is performed by the
Domain Name System (DNS), now the DNS returns the IP address for host 2 say (192.31.65.5).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> The upper layer software on host 1 now builds a packet with
192.31.65.5 in the <span class="docEmphasis">Destination address</span> field and
gives it to the IP software to transmit. The IP software can look at the address
and see that the destination is on its own network, but it needs some way to
find the destination's Ethernet address. One solution is to have a configuration
file somewhere in the system that maps IP addresses onto Ethernet addresses.
While this solution is certainly possible, for organizations with thousands of
machines, keeping all these files up to date is an error-prone, time-consuming
job.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> A better solution is for host 1 to output a broadcast packet
onto the Ethernet asking: Who owns IP address 192.31.65.5? The broadcast will
arrive at every machine on Ethernet 192.31.65.0, and each one will check its IP
address. Host 2 alone will respond with its Ethernet address (<span class="docEmphasis">E2</span>). In this way host 1 learns that IP address
192.31.65.5 is on the host with Ethernet address <span class="docEmphasis">E2</span>. The protocol used for asking this question and
getting the reply is called <span class="docEmphStrong">ARP</span> (<span class="docEmphStrong">Address Resolution Protocol</span>). Almost every machine on
the Internet runs it. ARP is defined in RFC 826.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> The advantage of using ARP over configuration files is the
simplicity. The system manager does not have to do much except assign each
machine an IP address and decide about subnet masks. ARP does the rest.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b> To have a more simplified view of the Address Resolution Protocol , please view the animation given below.</b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://draft.blogger.com/goog_303420865">Click Here to Visualize ARP</a></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://courses.iddl.vt.edu/CS1604/media/arp.html" target="_blank">Flash Animation</a></span></b><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Video Tutorial </span></b></div>
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<b><br /></b></div>
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<h1 id="watch-headline-title" style="background-color: #ebebeb; border: 0px; color: #333333; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: 1.8333em; height: 1.1363em; line-height: 1.1363em; margin: 0px 0px 5px; max-height: 1.1363em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; text-align: start;">
<span class="" dir="ltr" id="eow-title" style="background-color: transparent; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: 0px; font-size: 22px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" title="ARP Proxy Simulation: Animate ARP Over Router (6).">ARP Proxy Simulation: Animate ARP Over Router </span></h1>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-18108196720763614492012-08-18T22:15:00.001-07:002012-12-15T04:21:19.554-08:00HTML5 - A Bright Web Future <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgb5SIjp5ZR1VTkVlN0-B9doo8qDH4OW6elxtFukrE44CMoIqnKyP6OUHANFuRVvVMXCadNC9flX3qsLSv29TOB9N2s31NmjH4LqMYj8e-R-bGfBX18DX1McNLY-8pdL3SC5m_vjk4A2kM/s1600/HTML5_Logo_512.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgb5SIjp5ZR1VTkVlN0-B9doo8qDH4OW6elxtFukrE44CMoIqnKyP6OUHANFuRVvVMXCadNC9flX3qsLSv29TOB9N2s31NmjH4LqMYj8e-R-bGfBX18DX1McNLY-8pdL3SC5m_vjk4A2kM/s200/HTML5_Logo_512.png" width="200" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b> </b></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b> HTML5 - The future of web design</b> : Sounds like an over exaggerated statement for all web designers, but this is absolutely true and nothing exaggerated nor a false story. Today, web designers have large number of options available with them, when we talk about the technology to used to build websites. Many web designers prefer .NET languages for their added simplicity, few prefer JSP for the security it provides (and that is the reason why most e-commerce websites are build using JSP), some others may prefer PHP, and only a few newbies would prefer HTML(since most newbies have learnt this in school)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> The name HTML nowadays sounds outdated, and it should be as it took a long time for the W3C to release the next updated version of HTML, ever since HTML 4 was standardized in 1999. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Now what is actually HTML5? Is it just an upgrade for the previous version or a complete makeover?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Let us now clear a few doubts which would be pestering your minds now.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Question - </b>So what is HTML5?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Answer -> </b>HTML is definitely an upgrade to the previous version of HTML (version 4), but it is major upgrade. It includes many features which were previously not included in the language. With the previous versions, many limitations were hindered in the programming practices, later JavaScript, Flash and a few other scripts were used to overcome these limitations as the language could not handle much of animation and dynamic appearance. But the level of animations now possible with HTML5 is much better than those accomplished using Flash and other technologies and on top of that ..... these animations can be included with minimum lines of code. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Question - </b>Why do we say that HTML5 has a bright future?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Answer -></b> Now, the websites designed using HTML5, have a peculiar feature of adjusting the entire layout according to the browser and the device you are using. To be more precise, I would say, your website opens up like a normal website when you use your laptop, but when you use your mobile phone (any : iPhone,Android, Windows) the same website opens up like an App. Shocked ???,but its true!!!</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Question - </b>Does this mean that, if I have a website like that of Flipkart, Monster, Naukri or any other and I dont need to make apps for multiple platforms like Windows, android, iOS, Java based phones or Symbian or any other phones?</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Answer - >Yes, you dont need to !!</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Since, you open your website using a browser on any phone and the website automatically adjusts itself to your device's layout ,the result is 99.99% similar to that of an App. So, now there is no need to develop an app of your website for each platform (iOS,Android etc)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">With the increasing number of users and numerous advantages of the language, most web admins are converting their websites from the previous existing platforms into HTML5 for its various advantages.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Sounds interesting, so are you you ready to learn HTML5?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Here, we have provided few E-Books which would help you learn this language easily. Take a look at all these books and also the video tutorials (Channel link provided below) to learn this language within no time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b>-----------------------------------------------------</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b>Download Ebooks</b></span><br />
<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b>-----------------------------------------------------</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>#1 </b></span><br />
<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b> Sams Teach Yourself HTML5 </b></span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b>in 10 Minutes</b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Steve Holzner</b></span></div>
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<b>#2</b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">HTML5 : Up and Running</span></b></div>
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<b>Mark Pilgrim </b></div>
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<b>#3</b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">HTML5 & CSS3</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">Develop with Tomorrow's Standards Today</span></b></div>
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<b>Brian P. Hogan</b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">HTML5 </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">Designing Rich Internet Application</span></b></div>
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<b>Mathew David</b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Video Tutorials</span></b></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-34888529154138981392012-08-14T08:30:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:42:06.182-08:00SE 2008 Pattern Results are finally revealed : Pune University<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGy6l2SjDmQp8J5-vZThUcqPaStWod6xKw0YG03t8ZCFkuHU73dp1LbYUcm17AjYZF8sNfnqaOSsTNe2Ra0VodwcdL4mYkU0WeyaSUpXoAWEMyna1-rMoQEmdKblvhkCxXNhbnH4e13kQF/s1600/result2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGy6l2SjDmQp8J5-vZThUcqPaStWod6xKw0YG03t8ZCFkuHU73dp1LbYUcm17AjYZF8sNfnqaOSsTNe2Ra0VodwcdL4mYkU0WeyaSUpXoAWEMyna1-rMoQEmdKblvhkCxXNhbnH4e13kQF/s1600/result2.jpg" /></span></b></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://unipune.ac.in/university_files/results/SE_2008_passbrn.pdf" target="_blank">Download SE 2008 Pattern Results</a></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: large;"><a href="http://unipune.ac.in/university_files/FE_Online_Results_online.htm" target="_blank">Click Here</a></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> Pune University has finally rolled out the results for <b>SE 2008 pattern</b> after a long wait. This time unusually SE results were declared after the FE, TE and BE results were declared. There were a lot of rumors spreading out about the results. The results which was supposed to be rolled out on 5th of August was again postponed for the 2nd time due to undisclosed reasons. But finally after a long wait, results have finally been given a Green signal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b><a href="http://unipune.ac.in/university_files/results/SE_2008_passbrn.pdf" target="_blank">Download SE 2008 Pattern Results</a></b></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-24327611647372033912012-08-09T05:36:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.240-08:00A few Important Operator and Functions in SQL<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAU4Bq3g_CrAP7EkvXa3B7o9k_M8X_ihwa7yMWhWNWmfAMNVvZ4IBjUIqiTv00-Hq2zqkkKklqlH4_Rc6r1gazCGvqQ7tPDDQA_9GJWpSULDAg3JbXXqkhjjqdlxnXidbbFE160Tv_sCF5/s1600/logo_sql.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="281" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAU4Bq3g_CrAP7EkvXa3B7o9k_M8X_ihwa7yMWhWNWmfAMNVvZ4IBjUIqiTv00-Hq2zqkkKklqlH4_Rc6r1gazCGvqQ7tPDDQA_9GJWpSULDAg3JbXXqkhjjqdlxnXidbbFE160Tv_sCF5/s400/logo_sql.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> There are many </span><b style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Operators</b><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> and </span><b style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Functions</b><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> available in <b>SQL </b>which can be used to make our programming task more easier and conventional. Let us explore a few important functions and operators which can be used for most common cases.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">So,</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">What is an Operator?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">=> An operator is a symbol or keyword indicating an operation that acts on one or more elements.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">What is a Function?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">=> A function is a built-in, named routine that performs a specialized task. Most functions take parenthesized arguments, which are values you pass to the function that the function then uses to perform its task. Arguments can be column names, literals, nested functions, or more-complex expressions.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Let us now have a glance on the most commonly used Operators and Functions. </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">(The most traditional operators like +,-,*,/ are ignored here)</span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b>Creating Derived Columns</b></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">You can use operators and functions to create derived columns. A derived column is the result of a calculation and is created with a SELECT-clause expression that is something other than a simple reference to a column. Derived columns don’t become permanent columns in a table; they’re for display and reporting purposes.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The values in a derived column often are computed from values in existing columns, but you also can create a derived column by using a constant expression (such as a string, number, or date) or system value (such as</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">the system time).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Consider the following 3 examples for better understanding.
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Query : A constant expression in a SELECT clause. No FROM clause is needed, because I’m not retrieving </b><b>data from a table. </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">See the below figure for the result.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyiLS-HLSltc-y6JKEug_BlZbbP_I6aqBzamk7SbXUvj1ksAIigPaN6cK9xOBFohg4oL80HJ0MtBhZeHHyehGoVVwhhQSRr-DDkHOOSCr150yVlVNZbOYlN3pfesjyb-cBjGx1IgpIuEI8/s1600/derived1.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyiLS-HLSltc-y6JKEug_BlZbbP_I6aqBzamk7SbXUvj1ksAIigPaN6cK9xOBFohg4oL80HJ0MtBhZeHHyehGoVVwhhQSRr-DDkHOOSCr150yVlVNZbOYlN3pfesjyb-cBjGx1IgpIuEI8/s400/derived1.PNG" width="400" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Your DBMS will assign the derived column a default name, typically the expression itself as a quoted identifier. You should name derived columns explicitly with an AS clause because system-assigned names can be long, unwieldy, and inconvenient for database applications to refer.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Now, have a look a better example , Here, I’ve retrieved a column and a constant expression. See the below fig for the result</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn6wZCvVmJP2DUugKqzEHtb13rmJ5c3-iqEhh_LSRukwyd_BJyFtxltoYUwc0bHliyuHYxDMGP-fs8OhX-3i_7Eth5OnBA3ChmMrk5mdr_G4PCCwL8suHXOacxrODzn9rFn7EzWnVn9Sl7/s1600/derived2.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn6wZCvVmJP2DUugKqzEHtb13rmJ5c3-iqEhh_LSRukwyd_BJyFtxltoYUwc0bHliyuHYxDMGP-fs8OhX-3i_7Eth5OnBA3ChmMrk5mdr_G4PCCwL8suHXOacxrODzn9rFn7EzWnVn9Sl7/s400/derived2.PNG" width="382" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Finally, have a look at this example for getting a clear picture about derived columns</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Query : List the book prices discounted by 10 percent. The derived columns would have DBMS specific </b><b>default names if the AS clauses were removed. See the below fig for the result. </b></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQpz2jL2fJAsngnBp2M_6RK6xiRJ2g5ZxoUlRXprv3xKQxPAL7boyV-HjsXK9aSV9ePKrXOr1vsIujCQE8siML_tp62l_GInL1vHdNMP5z09daxlYXRBbXr8t_qbFMsyl6hyphenhyphenxVzinjI-LK/s1600/derived3.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQpz2jL2fJAsngnBp2M_6RK6xiRJ2g5ZxoUlRXprv3xKQxPAL7boyV-HjsXK9aSV9ePKrXOr1vsIujCQE8siML_tp62l_GInL1vHdNMP5z09daxlYXRBbXr8t_qbFMsyl6hyphenhyphenxVzinjI-LK/s640/derived3.PNG" width="379" /></span></a></div>
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<li><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Concatenating Strings with || Operator</span></b></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Use the operator || to combine, or concatenate, strings. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The operator’s important characteristics are:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ The operator || is two consecutive vertical-bar, or pipe, characters.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Concatenation doesn’t add a space between strings.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ ||, a dyadic operator, combines two strings into a single string: ‘formal’ || ‘dehyde’ is </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> ‘formaldehyde’.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ You can chain concatenations to combine multiple strings into a single string: ‘a’ || ‘b’ || ‘c’ </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> || ‘d’ is ‘abcd’.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Concatenation with an empty string (‘’) leaves a string unchanged: ‘a’ || ‘’ || ‘b’ is ‘ab’.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ The result of any concatenation operation that involves a null is null: ‘a’ || NULL || ‘b’ is </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> NULL. </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">How do we use it?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To concatenate strings:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Type: string1 || string2</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Explanation : </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">String1 and string2 are the strings to be combined. Each operand is a string expression such as a column that contains character strings, a string literal, or the result of an operation or function that returns a string</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Let's have a look at a few example for better understanding</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Query : List the authors’ first and last names, concatenated into a single column and sorted by last name/ first name.</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5PEKsc9r1f48zqu0eWZz6KtT3WZVnooZbv5XnmppalBaLaeOuENbA5SbMz8EqFXvFoy8_NTcxmaAsVe1SDVU3Q1tMOVOS7XPoM62hoy88iXQoAfyvPuD0lBNmzwByiLa1NXjgWZ-FcAIh/s1600/concat1.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5PEKsc9r1f48zqu0eWZz6KtT3WZVnooZbv5XnmppalBaLaeOuENbA5SbMz8EqFXvFoy8_NTcxmaAsVe1SDVU3Q1tMOVOS7XPoM62hoy88iXQoAfyvPuD0lBNmzwByiLa1NXjgWZ-FcAIh/s400/concat1.PNG" width="342" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Example 2 : </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> List biography sales by descending sales order. Here, I need to convert sales from an integer to</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">a string.</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP6GsW_WpynXjOaSCqTLL_tyfu2gp-On3L95Vj4R8VI-8s4CO2f78VwY3aFIDTmRR9rEGrUNEg6dpFKYb0m0PaygoqzBhItcBJYe1ZxsjfDJav6MeY7fFgoXtuOykUAQwTLsQYk6SY824u/s1600/concat2.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP6GsW_WpynXjOaSCqTLL_tyfu2gp-On3L95Vj4R8VI-8s4CO2f78VwY3aFIDTmRR9rEGrUNEg6dpFKYb0m0PaygoqzBhItcBJYe1ZxsjfDJav6MeY7fFgoXtuOykUAQwTLsQYk6SY824u/s400/concat2.PNG" width="332" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Example 3 :</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> List biographies by descending publication date. Here, I need to convert pubdate from a datetime to a string.</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRAj0DVffEA4Y5aNGgRQpQcfV4ICC4ypaUc7Pk-fjUkT6dnxASwABBkRGalmEkKv3nniHYcDisL45ZeXocM60k-RzlLJBQ9SWuZmtgfnyJurvQbV_lwmIBXa6tvJzpft3Dl8fgyqMmeTT8/s1600/concat3.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRAj0DVffEA4Y5aNGgRQpQcfV4ICC4ypaUc7Pk-fjUkT6dnxASwABBkRGalmEkKv3nniHYcDisL45ZeXocM60k-RzlLJBQ9SWuZmtgfnyJurvQbV_lwmIBXa6tvJzpft3Dl8fgyqMmeTT8/s400/concat3.PNG" width="322" /></span></a></div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Extracting a Substring with SUBSTRING()</span></b></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Use the function SUBSTRING() to extract part of a string. The function’s important characteristics are:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ A substring is any sequence of contiguous characters from the source string, including an empty string or the entire source string itself.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ SUBSTRING() extracts part of a string starting at a specified position and continuing for a specified number of characters.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ A substring of an empty string is an empty string.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ If any argument is null, SUBSTRING() returns null. (But see the Oracle exception in the DBMS Tip in this section.)</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">How do we use SUBSTRING() function</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Type:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">SUBSTRING(string FROM start [FOR length])</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Explanation : string is the source string from which to extract the substring. string is a string expression such as a column that contains character strings, a string literal, or the result of an operation or function that</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">returns a string. start is an integer that specifies where the substring begins, and length is an integer that specifies the length of the substring (the number of characters to return). start starts counting at 1. If FOR length is omitted, SUBSTRING() returns all the characters from start to the end of string</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Example : List the first initial and last name of the authors from New York State and Colorado.</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkdhjMVeaMHc70qI-6hr7jtvYTWdW6mB8uitkOaShZrkCERKoeTTYEjijAMqwgXcPGmQqY_ouvuPqUT0JgNWyEWL62JfgTxJwYbYvmX-tjpPbdwSU1w45E474Ld7QXdZW0p5oKOgUcaOPq/s1600/substring.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkdhjMVeaMHc70qI-6hr7jtvYTWdW6mB8uitkOaShZrkCERKoeTTYEjijAMqwgXcPGmQqY_ouvuPqUT0JgNWyEWL62JfgTxJwYbYvmX-tjpPbdwSU1w45E474Ld7QXdZW0p5oKOgUcaOPq/s400/substring.PNG" width="363" /></span></a></div>
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<li style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Changing String Case with UPPER() and LOWER()</span></b></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Use the function UPPER() to return a string with lowercase letters converted to uppercase, and use the function LOWER() to return a string with uppercase letters converted to lowercase. The functions’ important characteristics are:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ A cased character is a letter that can be lowercase (a) or uppercase (A).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Case changes affect only letters. Digits, punctuation, and whitespace are left unchanged.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Case changes have no effect on empty strings (‘’).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ If its argument is null, UPPER() and LOWER() return null. </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">How do we use it?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To convert a string to uppercase or lowercase:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ To convert a string to uppercase, type: UPPER(string) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> or</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆To convert a string to lowercase, type: LOWER(string)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Explanation :</b> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">String is a string expression such as a column that contains character strings, a string literal, or the result of an operation or function that returns a string</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Example : List the authors’ first names in lowercase and last names in uppercase</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia-xFIR5inSm8nGWmcPkNHfJ8AdkBPXugI6GYkQ11OOnreUfY1rBtdt6XRNhpKH4v2V1HNXYRLFYnU4ynffpKwmuq1qW2YgI6TVae7JN9ZFV1sNheVWtVh1OfOECwlJ_b6BtOc9THiUUln/s1600/upper.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia-xFIR5inSm8nGWmcPkNHfJ8AdkBPXugI6GYkQ11OOnreUfY1rBtdt6XRNhpKH4v2V1HNXYRLFYnU4ynffpKwmuq1qW2YgI6TVae7JN9ZFV1sNheVWtVh1OfOECwlJ_b6BtOc9THiUUln/s400/upper.PNG" width="361" /></span></a></div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Trimming Characters with TRIM()</span></b></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Use the function TRIM() to remove unwanted characters from the ends of a string. The function’s important characteristics are: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ You can trim leading characters, trailing characters, or both. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> (You can’t use TRIM() to remove characters from within a string.)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ By default, TRIM() trims spaces, but you can strip off any unwanted characters, such as leading and </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> trailing zeros or asterisks.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ TRIM() typically is used to format results and make comparisons in a WHERE clause.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ TRIM() is useful for trimming trailing spaces from CHAR values.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Trimming has no effect on empty strings (‘’).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ If any argument is null, TRIM() returns null.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">How do we use it?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To trim spaces from a string:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Type:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">TRIM([[LEADING | TRAILING | BOTH] FROM] string)</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Explanation :</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">String is a string expression such as a column that contains character strings, a string literal, or the result of an operation or function that returns a string. Specify LEADING to remove leading spaces, TRAILING to remove trailing spaces, or BOTH to remove leading and trailing spaces. If this specifier is omitted, BOTH is assumed.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Example : Strip the leading H from the authors’ last names that begin with H.</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8R_hLpTQ0JSAzQ4bKjT2IiQcuF2N7nXTh4doixaVGsxSI6GwPlSZN4j3fIq0O_CG4P6o0dcu_37zVpQ7Xdh-8g2tXfrhIzLPYRFZE2A3bk8v4C_wT35k_EKlagjm2UAB4zHwbpq8-PdC1/s1600/trim.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8R_hLpTQ0JSAzQ4bKjT2IiQcuF2N7nXTh4doixaVGsxSI6GwPlSZN4j3fIq0O_CG4P6o0dcu_37zVpQ7Xdh-8g2tXfrhIzLPYRFZE2A3bk8v4C_wT35k_EKlagjm2UAB4zHwbpq8-PdC1/s400/trim.PNG" width="338" /></span></a></div>
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<li style="text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Finding the Length of a String with CHARACTER_LENGTH()</span></b></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Use the function CHARACTER_LENGTH() to return the number of characters in a string.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The function’s important characteristics are:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ CHARACTER_LENGTH() returns an integer greater than or equal to zero.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ CHARACTER_LENGTH() counts characters, not bytes</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ The length of an empty string (‘’) is zero.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ If its argument is null, CHARACTER_LENGTH() returns null.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">How do we use it?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To find the length of a string:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">◆ Type: CHARACTER_LENGTH(string)</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Explanation :</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">String is a string expression such as a column that contains character strings, a string literal, or the result of an operation or function that returns a string.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Example : List the lengths of the authors’ first names. </span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQW_La8oljwtjE8oJ_TLrrmCDRB6GMhbOg8p4dBaluZGD82keg8-Nsos44oOYJ_GyXga-2DQxyHGfh9NY1yMyQt5xJfrQkUlM7IsZ7cS3vus07Rsuru9qXWSYsBB_J1wB3kPfND6P1l9Mw/s1600/char+len.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQW_La8oljwtjE8oJ_TLrrmCDRB6GMhbOg8p4dBaluZGD82keg8-Nsos44oOYJ_GyXga-2DQxyHGfh9NY1yMyQt5xJfrQkUlM7IsZ7cS3vus07Rsuru9qXWSYsBB_J1wB3kPfND6P1l9Mw/s320/char+len.PNG" width="312" /></span></a></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-84655918571784124612012-08-02T09:39:00.000-07:002012-08-03T05:11:00.019-07:00Free Educational App for learning PPS : [SE - Comp] [Sem 1]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Today we would like to bring to you a <b>free and innovative</b> Java based application for Learning the Subject : '<b>Programming & Problem Solving</b>' - A Second Year, first Sem <b>Computer Engineering Subject for Pune University</b>. The app is a freeware and has been successfully tested by our team for malware and other problems. The app was contributed to us by one of our readers : <a href="https://www.facebook.com/ajinkya.borle" target="_blank"><b>Mr. Ajinkya Borle</b> </a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><b><a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/addons/Mypedia.zip" target="_blank">Download the Application from the link below</a></b></span></div>
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<a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/addons/Mypedia.zip" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="76" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjMLU3GEA7wjxfPi7iv_yKVk78X8Z4yfyct3r4bTsoksaHaPxL8-oYCWsM49UGx3-pN80_rrdFt2HdhIx6kz52LeOOOyGXj3iEZGeMSHbWh8BxDAapUWWfKPGq3DqWOx7X-aVR1XaioGLE/s320/Download-Now-button.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://draft.blogger.com/goog_816360502"><br /></a></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="https://sites.google.com/site/downloaditportal/home/download/Mypedia.zip?attredirects=0&d=1" target="_blank">Alternative Download Link</a></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"> There are a few details you need to know before you download and use the Application :</span></div>
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<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The application is java based application and hence requires Java 1.6 or 1.7 to be installed on the user's computer.</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The Download Package contains a <b>Setup file (.exe file)</b> -which can be installed in the same simple and traditional way and an Instructions Manual(PDF) for user help.</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: white;">The software was made free of cost as it was sponsored by a Computer Shop named <b>Swaroop Computers</b> and hence the name <b>'Swaroop Computers'</b> appears in the application as a part of the Sponsorship Program.</span><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The sponsor's website opens when the software is launched; this is neither a threat, malware, adware nor a spyware! It is only a part of the sponsorship deal with the application.</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The application is only distributed by <a href="http://www.itportal.in/" target="_blank"><b>IT Engg Portal</b></a> and hence for any problems, queries and other help or information you are required to directly contact the developer :
<a href="https://www.facebook.com/ajinkya.borle" target="_blank"><b>Mr. Ajinkya Borle</b> </a> ( Contact Information will be provided at the end of this post.)</span></li>
</ul>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Our team has tested the software and hence recommends all Second Year, Computer Engineering Students to utilize this application for studying the subject.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Here are a few screenshots of the Application. </span></div>
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<b>Screenshot for Welcome Page (Splash Screen)</b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI8pxk-OH9jUVpvDN_dBX70Th4oiRHuPABZlqy_Qc8mzCGgCbmz-KNOL4Gq3HjqZHeXVvmtdtBBC-G4-ok7HMQvjIu_fiFuaBpc0qYwad7DnOvNuzjRXv5WhGSSuUg1jSZoAG0sR3IPWAd/s1600/pps1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjI8pxk-OH9jUVpvDN_dBX70Th4oiRHuPABZlqy_Qc8mzCGgCbmz-KNOL4Gq3HjqZHeXVvmtdtBBC-G4-ok7HMQvjIu_fiFuaBpc0qYwad7DnOvNuzjRXv5WhGSSuUg1jSZoAG0sR3IPWAd/s400/pps1.jpg" width="500" /></a></span></div>
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<b>2. ScreenShot for Main page of the Application</b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgk_UcbkOUt9k5rnj-M2K9lZicHxjkH0DSYYKoFfBXJuYPRTgdaoLEnq-tUzibz0xQhO0FkoqtsOL2w8zhej4bkK1GyvdNPAaC5JAAWSgeHAuFbXZq4pPdxhT5wzyJeiWpQVGv0y5e-pyvz/s1600/pps2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgk_UcbkOUt9k5rnj-M2K9lZicHxjkH0DSYYKoFfBXJuYPRTgdaoLEnq-tUzibz0xQhO0FkoqtsOL2w8zhej4bkK1GyvdNPAaC5JAAWSgeHAuFbXZq4pPdxhT5wzyJeiWpQVGv0y5e-pyvz/s400/pps2.jpg" width="500" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBoa1yjfmzo19m0yl-cQXabpnPKK-zTvIIEe18U9txiEY5LbUx0umJLqubWRs2mi1QWehYDT56XHpZxpAxUBRdLiFeTSXSr7IEtp1RTU52Qp2G_Z3eWKBouix-J8NT5HP7MDIarW4aD6Jb/s1600/pps3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBoa1yjfmzo19m0yl-cQXabpnPKK-zTvIIEe18U9txiEY5LbUx0umJLqubWRs2mi1QWehYDT56XHpZxpAxUBRdLiFeTSXSr7IEtp1RTU52Qp2G_Z3eWKBouix-J8NT5HP7MDIarW4aD6Jb/s320/pps3.jpg" width="500" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">For further details, you can contact the Contributor and Developer of this Application :</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Mr. Ajinkya Shishir Borle</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><span style="background-color: white; white-space: nowrap;">aborle@hotmail.com</span> </b></span></div>
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</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-64183240977686804412012-07-31T06:18:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:34:13.311-08:00BE Results are finally revealed!!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGy6l2SjDmQp8J5-vZThUcqPaStWod6xKw0YG03t8ZCFkuHU73dp1LbYUcm17AjYZF8sNfnqaOSsTNe2Ra0VodwcdL4mYkU0WeyaSUpXoAWEMyna1-rMoQEmdKblvhkCxXNhbnH4e13kQF/s1600/result2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGy6l2SjDmQp8J5-vZThUcqPaStWod6xKw0YG03t8ZCFkuHU73dp1LbYUcm17AjYZF8sNfnqaOSsTNe2Ra0VodwcdL4mYkU0WeyaSUpXoAWEMyna1-rMoQEmdKblvhkCxXNhbnH4e13kQF/s1600/result2.jpg" /></span></b></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://unipune.ac.in/university_files/results/passbrn_31-7-12.pdf" target="_blank">Download BE 2008 Pattern Results</a></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Pune University has finally revealed the results for BE 2008 pattern today i.e. 31st July 2012 . You can Download the results in PDF format to check you class obtained ..detailed result will be available in some time. Many students complained about the results being delayed and that the results are not yet declared... Please use Mozilla Firefox for viewing your result. Google Chrome and a few other browsers are not showing proper results!</span><br />
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<a href="http://unipune.ac.in/university_files/results/passbrn_31-7-12.pdf" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b>Download BE 2008 Pattern Resutls</b></span></a></div>
</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-23333261421192130872012-07-30T04:54:00.001-07:002012-12-14T11:34:13.300-08:00BE Results will be declared on 31st July, 2012 - Pune University<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYBNiSzZunZygDdpL3YENUPt924oaW-b3gx11zeUxjPDzakPuEH-_p6CE49FEdyJtM7grW78rArg9azH5aEO4JCyUb6mqKXHk_y-TCElt9MUx32AF1QyUMFpH0ZXhLKh6v3jJeZpZzAKpx/s1600/results.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="202" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYBNiSzZunZygDdpL3YENUPt924oaW-b3gx11zeUxjPDzakPuEH-_p6CE49FEdyJtM7grW78rArg9azH5aEO4JCyUb6mqKXHk_y-TCElt9MUx32AF1QyUMFpH0ZXhLKh6v3jJeZpZzAKpx/s320/results.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>University of Pune</b> will be finally rolling out <b>BE 2008 </b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>pattern - Final Year Engineering </b><b><span style="color: red;">Results</span> for<span style="color: red;"> </span>May 2012 Examinations</b></span><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> tomorrow i.e. on <b>31st July, 2012</b> between <b>3 p.m. to 9p.m</b> in the evening. The results are not to be published before 3 pm on 31st July on Pune University's official website. This year, results are declared quite early as compared to last few result sessions. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> According to the rules framed by the University, the results of any curriculum is to be released latest by 45 days post the last theory paper of the respective course. But on an average scale, the results are declare normally between 45 - 60 days or sometimes the results have also been delayed upto 90+ days. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Students will be given the detailed result online, like the results of TE and FE were revealed, however students will be getting the marksheet and the passing certificate (only for BE) 10 days post the online result. Students of BE are very enthusiastic about the results which will be declared by tomorrow evening as most BE pass out students are anxiously awaiting their results as it required for them to produce their final year marksheets before they join their respective Companies. </span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ9pfEVo2T4NCAZn8wG-4Op-EMDKxQW3fIJTGfyj2gbToRXVZChg2FjSYAWik_5iEZuMi8VDUEUd3vDWpM1KKMSm8dAlG179_cU05oj_gNAJO45docgty6G5uxJFoNkvP22emMw9bwhZp-/s1600/result2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ9pfEVo2T4NCAZn8wG-4Op-EMDKxQW3fIJTGfyj2gbToRXVZChg2FjSYAWik_5iEZuMi8VDUEUd3vDWpM1KKMSm8dAlG179_cU05oj_gNAJO45docgty6G5uxJFoNkvP22emMw9bwhZp-/s1600/result2.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b> You can check you Results from here</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b> </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b><a href="http://draft.blogger.com/goog_2045673444">Click here to avail your Result </a></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b><a href="http://unipune.ac.in/university_files/results.htm" target="_blank"> (B.E. 2008 Pattern)</a></b></span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>#Note : This link will be active only after 3.30 pm on July 31st, 2012</b></span></div>
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</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-78998028445077642782012-07-29T10:35:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.330-08:00Mutex and Semaphore : A Deeper Explanation - Operating Systems : TE [Comp - Sem 6] [I.T. Sem 5]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Let us first understand, what is <b>Mutex</b> aka <b>Mutual Exclusion</b>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Mutex is the short-form for <em style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><b><span style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">mu</span>tual <span style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">ex</span>clusion object</b></em>. In computer programming, a mutex is a program object that allows multiple program threads to share the same resource, such as file access, but not simultaneously. When a program is started, a mutex is created with a unique name. After this stage, any thread that needs the resource must lock the mutex from other threads while it is using the resource. The mutex is set to unlock when the data is no longer needed or the routine is finished.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">Mutual exclusion</b><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">, in</span><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> </span>computer science<span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">, refers to the problem of ensuring that no two processes or threads (henceforth referred to only as processes) can be in their</span><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> </span>critical section<span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">at the same time. Here, a critical section refers to a period of time when the process accesses a shared resource, such as</span><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> </span>shared memory<span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">. The problem of mutual exclusion was first identified and solved by</span><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> </span><b>Edsger W. Dijkstra<span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> </span></b><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">in his seminal 1965 paper titled:</span><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> </span><i style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">Solution of a problem in concurrent programming control</i><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 10px;">.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">A <b>simple example </b>of why mutual exclusion is important in practice can be visualized using a <b>singly linked list</b>. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In such a linked list the removal of a node is done by changing the “next” pointer of the preceding node to point to the subsequent node (e.g., if node <i>i</i> is being removed then the “next” pointer of node <i>i-1</i> will be changed to point to node <i>i+1</i>). In an execution where such a linked list is being shared between multiple processes, two processes may attempt to remove two different nodes simultaneously resulting in the following problem: let nodes <i>i</i> and <i>i+1</i> be the nodes to be removed; furthermore, let neither of them be the head nor the tail; the next pointer of node <i>i-1</i> will be changed to point to node <i>i+1</i> and the next pointer of node <i>i</i>will be changed to point to node <i>i+2</i>. Although both removal operations complete successfully, node <i>i+1</i> remains in the list since <i>i-1</i> was made to point to <i>i+1</i> skipping node <i>i</i> (which was made to point to <i>i+2</i>). This problem can be avoided using mutual exclusion to ensure that simultaneous updates to the same part of the list cannot occur.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Now, let us understand another very similar terminology called <b>Semaphore.</b></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>What is a Semaphore ?</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In programming, especially in Unix systems, semaphores are a technique for coordinating or synchronizing activities in which multiple processes compete for the same operating system resources. A semaphore is a value in a designated place in operating system (or kernel) storage that each process can check and then change. Depending on the value that is found, the process can use the resource or will find that it is already in use and must wait for some period before trying again. Semaphores can be binary (0 or 1) or can have additional values. Typically, a process using semaphores checks the value and then, if it using the resource, changes the value to reflect this so that subsequent semaphore users will know to wait.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Semaphores are commonly use for two purposes: </span></div>
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<li><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">to share a common memory space and </span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">to share access to files. </span></li>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Semaphores are one of the techniques for interprocess communication (IPC). The</span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span>C<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">programming language provides a set of interfaces or "functions" for managing semaphores.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> In simple terms, a <b>semaphore</b> is a variable or abstract data type that provides a simple but useful abstraction for controlling access by multiple processes to a common resource in a parallel programming environment. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> A useful way to think of a semaphore is as a record of how many units of a particular resource are available, coupled with operations to <i>safely</i> (i.e., without race conditions) adjust that record as units are required or become free, and if necessary wait until a unit of the resource becomes available. Semaphores are a useful tool in the prevention of race conditions; however, their use is by no means a guarantee that a program is free from these problems. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Semaphores which allow an arbitrary resource count are called <b>counting semaphores</b>, while semaphores which are restricted to the values 0 and 1 (or locked/unlocked, unavailable/available) are called <b>binary semaphores</b> (same functionality that mutexes have).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>What are the differences between Mutex and Semaphore? </b>and</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>When to use mutex and when to use semaphore?</b><span id="more-9102"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Concrete understanding of Operating System concepts is required to design/develop smart applications. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">As per operating system terminology, the mutex and semaphore are kernel resources that provide synchronization services (also called as <em>synchronization primitives</em>). </span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Let us understand the difference between semaphore and mutex by considering the 'Producer - Consumer Problem'</span></i></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The Producer-consumer problem:</span></strong></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Note that the content is generalized explanation. Practical details will vary from implementation.</span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Consider the standard producer-consumer problem. Assume, we have a buffer of 4096 byte length. A producer thread will collect the data and writes it to the buffer. A consumer thread will process the collected data from the buffer. Objective is, both the threads should not run at the same time.</span></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Using Mutex:</span></strong></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> A mutex provides mutual exclusion, either producer or consumer can have the key (mutex) and proceed with their work. As long as the buffer is filled by producer, the consumer needs to wait, and vice versa.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> At any point of time, only one thread can work with the <em>entire</em> buffer. The concept can be generalized using semaphore.</span></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Using Semaphore:</span></strong></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> A semaphore is a generalized mutex. In lieu of single buffer, we can split the 4 KB buffer into four 1 KB buffers (identical resources). A semaphore can be associated with these four buffers. The consumer and producer can work on different buffers at the same time.</span></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Misconception:</span></strong></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> There is an ambiguity between <em>binary semaphore</em> and <em>mutex</em>. We might have come across that a mutex is binary semaphore. <em>But they are not</em>! The purpose of mutex and semaphore are different. May be, due to similarity in their implementation a mutex would be referred as binary semaphore.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Strictly speaking, a mutex is <strong>locking mechanism</strong> used to synchronize access to a resource. Only one task (can be a thread or process based on OS abstraction) can acquire the mutex. It means there will be ownership associated with mutex, and only the owner can release the lock (mutex).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Semaphore is <strong>signaling mechanism</strong> (“I am done, you can carry on” kind of signal). For example, if you are listening songs (assume it as one task) on your mobile and at the same time your friend called you, an interrupt will be triggered upon which an interrupt service routine (ISR) will signal the call processing task to wakeup.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">FAQS on Mutex and Semaphore</span></b></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b> 1. Can a thread acquire more than one lock (Mutex)?</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Yes, it is possible that a thread will be in need of more than one resource, hence the locks. If any lock is not available the thread will wait (block) on the lock.</span></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>2. Can a mutex be locked more than once?</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">A mutex is a lock. Only one state (locked/unlocked) is associated with it. However, a <em>recursive mutex</em>can be locked more than once (POSIX complaint systems), in which a count is associated with it, yet retains only one state (locked/unlocked). The programmer must unlock the mutex as many number times as it was locked.</span></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>3. What will happen if a non-recursive mutex is locked more than once.</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Deadlock. If a thread which had already locked a mutex, tries to lock the mutex again, it will enter into the waiting list of that mutex, which results in deadlock. It is because no other thread can unlock the mutex. An operating system implementer can exercise care in identifying the owner of mutex and return if it is already locked by same thread to prevent deadlocks.</span></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>4. Are binary semaphore and mutex same?</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">No. We will suggest to treat them separately, as it was explained signalling vs locking mechanisms. But a binary semaphore may experience the same critical issues (e.g. priority inversion) associated with mutex. We will cover these later article.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">A programmer can prefer mutex rather than creating a semaphore with count 1.</span></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>5. What is a mutex and critical section?</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Some operating systems use the same word <em>critical section</em> in the API. Usually a mutex is costly operation due to protection protocols associated with it. At last, the objective of mutex is atomic access. There are other ways to achieve atomic access like disabling interrupts which can be much faster but ruins responsiveness. The alternate API makes use of disabling interrupts.</span></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>6. What are events?</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The semantics of mutex, semaphore, event, critical section, etc… are same. All are synchronization primitives. Based on their cost in using them they are different. We should consult the OS documentation for exact details.</span></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>7. Can we acquire mutex/semaphore in an Interrupt Service Routine?</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">An ISR will run asynchronously in the context of current running thread. It is <strong>not recommended</strong> to query (blocking call) the availability of synchronization primitives in an ISR. The ISR are meant be short, the call to mutex/semaphore may block the current running thread. However, an ISR can signal a semaphore or unlock a mutex.</span></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>8. What we mean by “thread blocking on mutex/semaphore” when they are not available?</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Every synchronization primitive will have waiting list associated with it. When the resource is not available, the requesting thread will be moved from the running list of processor to the waiting list of the synchronization primitive. When the resource is available, the higher priority thread on the waiting list will get resource (more precisely, it depends on the scheduling policies).</span></div>
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<em><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>9. Is it necessary that a thread must block always when resource is not available?</b></span></em></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Not necessarily. If the design is sure ‘<em>what has to be done when resource is not available</em>‘, the thread can take up that work (a different code branch). To support application requirements the OS provides non-blocking API.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">For example POSIX pthread_mutex_trylock() API. When the mutex is not available the function will return immediately where as the API pthread_mutex_lock() will block the thread till resource is available.</span></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">References:</span></strong></div>
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<a href="http://www.netrino.com/node/202" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">http://www.netrino.com/node/202</span></a></div>
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<a href="http://doc.trolltech.com/4.7/qsemaphore.html" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">http://doc.trolltech.com/4.7/qsemaphore.html</span></a></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><a href="http://www.geeksforgeeks.org/archives/9102">http://www.geeksforgeeks.org/archives/9102</a>
</span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><a href="http://searchenterpriselinux.techtarget.com/definition/semaphore">http://searchenterpriselinux.techtarget.com/definition/semaphore</a>
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<a href="http://www.webopedia.com/"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">http://www.webopedia.com/</span></a>
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<br /></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-20270572533821490812012-07-29T06:21:00.001-07:002012-12-14T11:42:06.159-08:00What is the difference between Von Neumann Architecture and Harvard Architecture ?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b style="background-color: white;">The Von Neumann</b><span style="background-color: white;"> and the </span><b style="background-color: white;">Harvard Architecture</b><span style="background-color: white;"> is one important concept introduced in the basics of Computer Organization a subject which is included in the Engineering curriculum in 3rd semester for Information Technology Engineering and 4th semester for Computer Engineering in Pune University.</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Today let us have a deeper look into both the architectures and then discuss the difference between the two.</span></span></span></div>
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<b>The Von Neumann Architecture</b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEievuPR84ks-JhyphenhyphenJZymJU2C6O9HWhB8-RNs9e9aAAjJGbJx9jdgqImUSOJoepiA5SM3eKdM2yZYsJWYFnZCmapJeaDWR7kv6hfOPtFvNS7NKTqZnLf6XriQ_xdew6rjbFA9Mu8A5VabzQe4/s1600/von.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="304" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEievuPR84ks-JhyphenhyphenJZymJU2C6O9HWhB8-RNs9e9aAAjJGbJx9jdgqImUSOJoepiA5SM3eKdM2yZYsJWYFnZCmapJeaDWR7kv6hfOPtFvNS7NKTqZnLf6XriQ_xdew6rjbFA9Mu8A5VabzQe4/s320/von.png" width="320" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In the <b>von Neumann Architecture,</b> the computer consisted of a<b> CPU</b>, <b>memory</b> and<b> I/O devices</b>. The program is stored in the memory. The CPU fetches an instruction from the memory at a time and executes it.</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Thus, the instructions are executed <b>sequentially</b> which is a slow process. Neumann m/c are called <b>control flow computer</b> because instruction are executed sequentially as controlled by a program counter. To increase the speed, parallel processing of computer have been developed in which serial CPU’s are connected in parallel to solve a problem. Even in parallel computers, the basic building blocks are Neumann processors.</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">The von Neumann architecture is a design model for a stored-program digital computer that uses a processing unit and a single separate storage structure to hold both instructions and data. It is named after mathematician and early computer scientist John von Neumann. Such a computer implements a universal Turing machine, and the common "referential model" of specifying sequential architectures, in contrast with parallel architectures.</span>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">One shared memory for instructions (program) and data with one data bus and one address bus between processor and memory. Instructions and data have to be fetched in sequential order (known as the Von Neuman Bottleneck), limiting the operation bandwidth. Its design is simpler than that of the Harvard architecture. It is mostly used to interface to external memory.</span>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span style="line-height: 24px;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Harvard Architecture</b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The term originated from the Harvard Mark 1 relay-based computer, which stored instructions on punched tape and data in relay latches.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Harvard Architecture: </b>The Harvard architecture uses physically separate memories for their instructions and data, requiring dedicated buses for each of them. Instructions and operands can therefore be fetched simultaneously.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Different program and data bus widths are possible, allowing program and data memory to be better optimized to the architectural requirements. E.g.: If the instruction format requires 14 bits then program bus and memory can be made 14-bit wide, while the data bus and data memory remain 8-bit wide.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage and </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">signal pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the Harvard Mark </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">I relay-based computer, which stored instructions on punched tape (24 bits wide) and </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">data in electro-mechanical counters (23 digits wide). These early machines had limited </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">data storage, entirely contained within the data processing unit, and provided no </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">access to the instruction storage as data, making loading and modifying programs an </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">entirely offline process.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Memory details</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In a Harvard architecture, there is no need to make the two memories share </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">characteristics. In particular, the word width, timing, implementation technology, and </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">memory address structure can differ. Instruction memory is often wider than data </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">memory. In some systems, instructions can be stored in read-only memory while data </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">memory generally requires read-write memory. In some systems, there is much more </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">instruction memory than data memory so instruction addresses are much wider than </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">data addresses.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Contrast with other computer architectures</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In a computer with the contrasting von Neumann architecture (and no cache), the CPU </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">can be either reading an instruction or reading/writing data from/to the memory. Both </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">cannot occur at the same time since the instructions and data use the same bus system. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In a computer using the Harvard architecture, the CPU can both read an instruction </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">and erform a data memory access at the same time, even without a cache. A Harvard </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">architecture computer can thus be faster for a given circuit complexity because </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">instruction fetches and data access do not contend for a single memory pathway.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The Modified Harvard architecture is very much like the Harvard architecture but <span style="background-color: white;">provides a pathway between the instruction memory and the CPU that allows words </span><span style="background-color: white;">from the instruction memory to be treated as read-only data. This allows constant data, </span><span style="background-color: white;">particularly text strings, to be accessed without first having to be copied into data </span><span style="background-color: white;">memory, thus preserving more data memory for read/write variables. Special machine </span><span style="background-color: white;">language instructions are provided to read data from the instruction memory. Most </span><span style="background-color: white;">modern computers that are documented as Harvard Architecture are, in fact, Modified</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Harvard Architecture.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Speed</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In recent years the speed of the CPU has grown many times in comparison to the <span style="background-color: white;">access speed of the main memory. Care needs to be taken to reduce the number of </span><span style="background-color: white;">times main memory is accessed in order to maintain performance. If, for instance, </span><span style="background-color: white;">every instruction run in the CPU requires an access to memory, the computer gains </span><span style="background-color: white;">nothing for increased CPU speed — a problem referred to as being memory bound.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">It is possible to make extremely fast memory but this is only practical for small <span style="background-color: white;">amounts of memory for both cost and signal routing reasons. The solution is to </span><span style="background-color: white;">provide a small amount of very fast memory known as a CPU cache which holds </span><span style="background-color: white;">recently accessed data. As long as the memory that the CPU needs is in the cache, the </span><span style="background-color: white;">performance hit is much smaller than it is when the cache has to turn around and get </span><span style="background-color: white;">the data from the main memory. Cache tuning is an important aspect of computer </span><span style="background-color: white;">design.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Modern high performance CPU chip designs incorporate aspects of both Harvard and <span style="background-color: white;">von Neumann architecture. On-chip cache memory is divided into an instruction cache </span><span style="background-color: white;">and a data cache. Harvard architecture is used as the CPU accesses the cache. In the </span><span style="background-color: white;">case of a cache miss, however, the data is retrieved from the main memory, which is </span><span style="background-color: white;">not divided into separate instruction and data sections. Thus, while a von Neumann </span><span style="background-color: white;">architecture is presented to the programmer, the hardware implementation gains the </span><span style="background-color: white;">efficiencies of the Harvard architecture.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Uses</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Harvard architectures are also frequently used in:</span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Specialized digital signal processors, DSPs, commonly used in audio or video </span><span style="background-color: white;">processing products. For example, Blackfin processors by Analog Devices, Inc. </span><span style="background-color: white;">use a Harvard architecture.</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="background-color: white;"> Most general purpose small microcontrollers used in many electronics </span><span style="background-color: white;">applications, such as the PIC by Microchip Technology, Inc., and AVR by Atmel </span><span style="background-color: white;">Corp. These processors are characterized by having small amounts of program </span><span style="background-color: white;">and data memory, and take advantage of the Harvard architecture and reduced </span><span style="background-color: white;">instruction sets (RISC) to ensure that most instructions can be executed within </span><span style="background-color: white;">only one machine cycle, which is not necessarily one clock cycle. The separate </span><span style="background-color: white;">storage means the program and data memories can have different bit depths.</span></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Example:</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> PICs have an 8-bit data word but (depending on specific range of <span style="background-color: white;">PICs) a 12-, 14-, or 16-bit program word. This allows a single instruction to </span><span style="background-color: white;">contain a full-size data constant. Other RISC architectures, for example the </span><span style="background-color: white;">ARM, typically must use at least two instructions to load a full-size constant.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="color: red; font-size: small;">What is the difference between a von Neumann architecture and a Harvard architecture?</span></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><strong>Harvard architecture</strong> has separate data and instruction busses, allowing transfers to be performed simultaneously on both busses. A <strong>von Neumann architecture</strong> has only one bus which is used for both data transfers and instruction fetches, and therefore data transfers and instruction fetches must be scheduled - they can not be performed at the same time.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">It is possible to have two separate memory systems for a <strong>Harvard architecture</strong>. As long as data and instructions can be fed in at the same time, then it doesn't matter whether it comes from a cache or memory. But there are problems with this. Compilers generally embed data (literal pools) within the code, and it is often also necessary to be able to write to the instruction memory space, for example in the case of self modifying code, or, if an ARM debugger is used, to set software breakpoints in memory. If there are two completely separate, isolated memory systems, this is not possible. There must be some kind of bridge between the memory systems to allow this.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Using a simple, unified memory system together with a Harvard architecture is highly inefficient. Unless it is possible to feed data into both busses at the same time, it might be better to use a von Neumann architecture processor.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><strong>Use of caches</strong></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">At higher clock speeds, caches are useful as the memory speed is proportionally slower. <strong>Harvard architectures</strong> tend to be targeted at higher performance systems, and so caches are nearly always used in such systems.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><strong>Von Neumann architectures</strong> usually have a single unified cache, which stores both instructions and data. The proportion of each in the cache is variable, which may be a good thing. It would in principle be possible to have separate instruction and data caches, storing data and instructions separately. This probably would not be very useful as it would only be possible to ever access one cache at a time.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Caches for Harvard architectures are very useful. Such a system would have separate caches for each bus. Trying to use a shared cache on a Harvard architecture would be very inefficient since then only one bus can be fed at a time. Having two caches means it is possible to feed both buses simultaneously....exactly what is necessary for a Harvard architecture.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">This also allows to have a very simple unified memory system, using the same address space for both instructions and data. This gets around the problem of literal pools and self modifying code. What it does mean, however, is that when starting with empty caches, it is necessary to fetch instructions and data from the single memory system, at the same time. Obviously, two memory accesses are needed therefore before the core has all the data needed. This performance will be no better than a von Neumann architecture. However, as the caches fill up, it is much more likely that the instruction or data value has already been cached, and so only one of the two has to be fetched from memory. The other can be supplied directly from the cache with no additional delay. The best performance is achieved when both instructions and data are supplied by the caches, with no need to access external memory at all.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">This is the most sensible compromise and the architecture used by ARMs Harvard processor cores. Two separate memory systems can perform better, but would be difficult to implement.</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0Pune, Maharashtra, India18.5204303 73.856743718.3999798 73.6988152 18.6408808 74.014672199999993tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-86887940422784493532012-07-28T10:49:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.361-08:00Pune University rolls out TE 2008 pattern results<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Finally on <b>28th July, 2012 </b>University of Pune has released the results for <b>Third Year Engineering 2008 pattern.</b>This time, the results have rolled out on time compared to the previous few result sessions. According to the University's rules Exam Results are supposed to be declared after a maximum of 45 days post the last theory paper. But since May 2011, there were heavy delays in the results to be declared. It took previously 95+ days for the results of each academic year to be rolled.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Luckily , this time University of Pune revealed the First Year Results on time i.e on 18th July,2012 and then declared tentatively stated that the SE and TE results will be out after 28th of July. TE results are on time , SE results however missed the cut off date, but will soon be declared.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>You can download the PDF for results to check the class you avail:</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Detailed marksheet will be available in the college on Monday, 30th July 2012.</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>To view your detailed result </b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><br /></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><a href="http://unipune.ac.in/university_files/FE_Online_Results_online.htm" target="_blank">Click Here</a></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b>----------------------------------------</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b>TE Results 2008 Pattern</b></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-88294857681371585662012-07-24T10:17:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.364-08:00A Few Guidelines : Before you decide on your BE Project<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #222222; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Today, we would like to share with you, few guidelines or a few important facts which you should know before you take up your final decision about your final year Engineering Projects.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #222222; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Most of you may be confused with a few questions like : Should I go for a sponsored project or a normal non-sponsored project? If I prefer a sponsored project, then which company should I prefer?</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #222222; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Even though only a few questions, these questions would suffice to kill your time and patience.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #222222; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">We have jotted down a few guidelines which would help you take a better decision on your Final Year Engineering Project rather than simply helping you out on your project.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Q) Should I go for a Sponsored Project or a Non Sponsored Project?</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="color: #222222; text-align: -webkit-auto;">-> The decision totally depends on your choice ,</span><span style="color: #222222; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> We would suggest Go for a Sponsored Project.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Meanwhile both has its pros and cons</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">First, you must understand that doing the whole project all by your self is not at all an easy task. You will definitely need a guide , i.e someone who can show you -</span></div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">How you should work</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">What you need to study </span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">Where should you start from,</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">how should you start </span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">and finally helping you framing a project. And then you do the rest under his or her guidance. The Guide is capable of helping you as her or she has already worked on the same or a similar project.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Now, before we start the discussion, we first need to understand the main difference between '<b>A Sponsored Project</b>', '<b>A Non-Sponsored Project</b>' and<b> pros and cons </b>of both.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Q) Now , what is the difference between a Sponsored and a Non - Sponsored Project?</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> In a sponsored project , you work for a particular company under their guidelines. The company provides you a guide, who is actually experienced. The guide then helps you, in framing your project and gives you all necessary guidelines and training if required.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Its not necessary that you should go to the company always to work.... casual visits are more than enough, you just need to keep your guide updated with your progress and then continue to work according to his instructions. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> We call this scheme sponsored as you do not have to pay anything to the guide. The guide is made available by the company free of cost. At the end, your project is Company's intellectual property and you are not allowed to disclose the source code to any one.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Advantages </b>:</span></div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">You experience a Company level project environment</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">You get a good guide free of cost</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">You get a certificate of Project completion from the Company</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> and </span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">You also get an Internship certificate from the company..which adds immense value to your resume</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Now consider, you go for a non-sponsored project, then you would need a guide (externally arranged) to help you. You can locally hire Guides for a project from many Institutions in the city .(like Net2net, Seed Infotech, NIIT etc...). These guides are also experienced, but will charge you for the period of your project tenure (around 10,0000 - 15,000, for the whole grp, so each member has to pay around 3000 or 4000). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Here , you do the entire project on your own, but you will be provided help and guidelines from your guide.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Advantages : </b></span></div>
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<li><span style="color: #222222; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">You are guided by an external Representative who is experienced in the project he offers guidance.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Disadvantages :</b></span></div>
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<li><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> Guides externally arranged charge lumpsum amount</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Last option is the worst ....but most widely used</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">You can purchase a ready made project or outsource your project. Some external party will build your project completely and will also teach you, how it was made. You just need to rest ,everything is made available by them. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Easiest.... but you ll never learn anything innovative. Most students prefer this option!!! </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Unfortunately.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> It costs around 18k to 25k , depending o your project and the company or the individual who develops the project.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Last .....it all depends on your choice...how your team works, how well do they adjust with each other etc.</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18045310596167886667noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-251019691674489203.post-13073558192268686272012-07-05T12:51:00.000-07:002012-12-14T11:46:52.207-08:00SQL and PL-SQL - Download Ebooks<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">What is SQL?</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">SQL stands for <b>Structured Query Language</b>. SQL is used to <b>communicate with a database. </b>SQL statements are used to perform <b>tasks</b> such as <b>update data </b>on a database, or <b>retrieve data</b> from a database. Some common relational database management systems that use SQL are: Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Ingres, etc. Although most database systems use SQL, most of them also have their own additional proprietary extensions that are usually only used on their system. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">However, the standard SQL commands such as <b>"Select", "Insert", "Update", "Delete", "Create", and "Drop"</b> can be used to accomplish almost everything that one needs to do with a database. This tutorial will provide you with the instruction on the basics of each of these commands as well as allow you to put them to practice using the SQL Interpreter.</span>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> SQL allows you to :</span></div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">execute queries against a database</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">retrieve data from a database</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">insert records in a database</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">update records in a database</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">delete records from a database</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">create new databases</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">create new tables in a database</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">create stored procedures in a database</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">create views in a database</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">set permissions on tables, procedures, and views</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">SQL is used almost in all websites projects in the IT industry. For the Engineering curriculum, the TE projects (<b>SEM 1 and SEM 2</b>) require back end as MySQL, Oracle or Access. These are nothing but RDBMS's i.e. a Relational Database Management System which allows users to provide a Database as a backend to query to access and manipulate data. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Learning SQL is easy, as its language constructs are almost English like statements, which makes operations like selecting, deleting, updating,altering etc extremely easy. It also allows embedding other language scripts to increase the functionality of querying.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Now, what is PL-SQL ?</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">As you may have noticed from the preceding section, SQL statements are very concise and powerful, but do not do more as a group than they do individually. Generally speaking, SQL statements operate independently, having little effect on one another. This is of limited use for writing programs, where you must create a body of code that is going to vary its behavior according to the data and to user or other input.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> To develop applications with SQL, you generally have to either interface it to a standard programming language such as C, or extend it so that it becomes a useful programming language in itself. Oracle supports both approaches, but the latter approach has many advantages that are relevant to the Web, and is therefore the approach that the Oracle WebServer takes.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>PL/SQL, then, is an application-development language</b> that is a superset of SQL, supplementing it with standard programming-language features that include the following:</span></div>
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<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">block (modular) structure</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">flow-control statements and loops</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">variables, constants, and types</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">structured data</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">customized error handling</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Another feature of PL/SQL is that it allows you to store compiled code directly in the database. This enables any number of applications or users to share the same functions and procedures. In fact, once a given block of code is loaded into memory, any number of users can use the same copy of it simultaneously (although behavior is as though each user had her own copy), which is useful for the Oracle WebServer. PL/SQL also enables you to define triggers, which are subprograms that the database executes automatically in response to specified events.
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Below, we have provided you a few Ebooks which can help you learn <b>SQL and PL/SQL</b> Easily.</span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b> Books for Download:</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b>Sams Teach Yourself SQL in 21 Days</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b><a href="http://dl.jaytee.in/Ebooks/sql/Sam's%20Teach%20Yourself%20MySQL%20in%2021%20Days.pdf" target="_blank">Download Now</a></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b>-------------------------------------------------------</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b>Oracle Database 11G</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><b>Oracle PL- SQL </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Beginning PL/SQL </b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">From Novice to </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">Professional</span></span></b></div>
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<b>Donald Bates</b></div>
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